The Engineering Projects

Introduction to C1815

Hello friends, I hope you all are doing great. In today's tutorial, we are gonna have a look at detailed Introduction to C1815. The C1815 is a transistor like other it is used to amplify acoustic frequency signal. Most transistors are coded for easy documentation through these titles can differ by builders. One or two erudition are typically trailed by a sequence of statistics, and then probably additional statistics. Consequently, a C1815 transistor can also be recognized as a 2SC1815 transistor. It is used as a switch to initiative loads below 150mA. The use of transistors aided the electronics manufacturing alteration quickly, and developments in expertise are permitting minor apparatuses to be used to production of slighter expedients. In today’s post, we will have a look at its shield, wreckages, implication, proposals, etc. I will also share some links where I have connected it with other microcontrollers. You can also get more material about it in comments, I will guide you more about it. So, let’s get started with a basic Introduction to C1815. 

Introduction to C1815

• The C1815 is a transistor like other it is used to amplify acoustic frequency signal. It is used as a switch to initiative loads below 150mA.
• It is manufactured from semiconductors constituents such as Silicon, Germanium, etc, it has three pinouts sometime extra.

• It is used for swapping and strengthening of numerous signals. Additional statistics can also be found only from the part digits.

• The '2S' ratio of the integer designates that the C1815 transistor is decent for high-frequency solicitations and is in Negative-Positive-Negative arrangement.

• The first negative terminal of the transistor is associated with the negative sideways of a circuit, and monitor the movement of electrons to the positive area in the intermediate.

• The second negative terminal of the transistor governs the electrons sendoff the positive, central area.

• The semiconductor component that is used to develop the transistor decide that the transistor have NPN or PNP pattern.
• Three leads on this transistor recognized the emitter, base, and collector. An emitter is a yield, the base is similar to the doorway which switches the input of the collector.
• For instance, while a C1815 transistor is used in an audiovisual solicitation, the emitter directs the audiovisual output signal. This is managed by the base, which can be a squat audiovisual signal, and motorized by the collector, which might be a 5-volt power source.
• By fluctuating the quantity of current at the base terminal of a transistor, the extent of power moving from the collector to the emitter can be organized.
• For illustration, in numerical circuits, a transistor is on condition when it accepts 5-volts, and off when it takes fewer than that quantity.
• Overall evaluations for a C1815 transistor comprise a power indulgence of 0.4 watts at an ambient temperature of 77° Fahrenheit (25° Celsius). The transistor consumes collector current of 0.15 amps. Quantity of voltage amid collector and base is 60 volts.

Pinout of C1815

• These are pinout of C1815.

  Pin#	Type	Parameters
  Pin#1	Emitter	This pin is for the outward movement of current.
  Pin#2	Base	The base governs the biasing of the transistor.
  Pin#3	Collector	The collector is for the current inner drive. It is associated with the load.

  Lest see a diagram of the pinout.

Features of C1815

• These are some features of C1815.
  • It is offered in cascading of TO-92.
  • It is like an NPN transistor.
  • The quantity of current across collector (Ic) is 150mA.
  • The value of voltage across the collector to the emitter(V_CE) is 50V.
  • The quantity of voltage crossways its emitter and base (V_EB) is 5V.
  • Voltage crosswise collector and base (V_CB) is 60V.
  • Intemperance power crossways collector is 400mW.
  • Its frequency conversion is 80MHZ.
  • It lowermost current gain is 70 and extreme is 700.
  • Its extreme stowage and the employed temperature is -55 to +150 C.

Where we can use C1815

• As it is C1815 transistor it can be used in acoustic intensifications phases, trivial acoustic amplifier, pre-amplifier and also in pre-amplifier phases.
• It works as a switch in electronic circuits to run loads of 150mA such as to run relay, high power consuming transistors, LEDs and other industrial electronic circuits.
• It works as a switch in electronic circuits to run loads of 150mA such as to run relay, high power consuming transistors, LEDs and other industrial electronic circuits.
• We can use it to construct a Darlington pair.

Applications of C1815 

• These are applications of C1815.
  • It is used in such instruments which use Sensor Circuits
  • It is used in Auditory Pre-amplifiers.
  • It is used in different audio Amplifier Phases.
  • It works as a switch for such circuits which use 150mA current.
  • It used in RF Circuits.

 So it was all about C1815 if you have any question about it ask in comments. I will explain to you further about it. Thanks for reading.

Introduction to TIP2955

Hello friends, I hope you all are doing great. In today's tutorial, we are gonna have a look at detailed Introduction to TIP2955. It is a harmonizing silicon power transistor which is designed to use in universal tenacity power amplifications and swapping submissions. It is a PNP transistor and has a casing of TO-247. It is the complementary device for the  TIP3055 NPN transistors. It is used in such applications which need high power input supply. It is a common expedient used in numerous manufacturing schemes where acoustic intensification is obligatory. Its constructions are good-looking much the alike rejecting for the extreme power tolerance that is somewhat smaller. In today’s post, we will have a look at its protection, wreck, fame, applications, etc. I will also share some links where I have allied it with other microcontrollers. You can also get more material about it in comments, I will guide you more about it. So, let’s get started with a basic Introduction to TIP2955. 

Introduction to TIP2955

• It is a harmonizing silicon power transistor which is designed to use in universal tenacity power amplifications and swapping submissions. It is a PNP transistor and has a casing of TO-247.
• This transistor exits into the class of power transistors. Power transistors can endure high power indulgence deprived of any destruction.

• Due to the restrictions of the transistor suite type, it is permanently compulsory that a power transistor is equestrian on an appropriate heat sink in other to bind the device’s maximum rated power deprived of harm.
• This transistor finds extensive use in Power Swapping schemes such as inverters, and output periods of acoustic amplifiers where they are linked in push-pull with a corresponding power transistor type.
• When used in an acoustic amplifier scheme, it is sensible to enterprise the power transistor from a pre-amplifier phase as most power transistors have little current gain.

  Pinout of TIP2955

• These are the main pinout of TIP2955 which are well-defined beneath.

• Pin#	Type	Parameters
  Pin#1	Emitter	The emitter is for an outside enterprise of current.
  Pin#2	Base	The base manages the biasing of the transistor. It caprices the condition of the transistor.
  Pin#3	Collector	The collector is for the current inward movement. It is connected to the load.

  Lest see a diagram of the pinout.

Features of TIP2955

• These are the main features of TIP2955.
  • It is a PNP transistor.
  • Its extreme power Indulgence (dissipation) (Pc) at the collector is 90 Watt.
  • Its extreme voltage at collector and base (Vcb) terminal is 100 volts.
  • Its extreme voltage at collector and emitter terminals (VCE) is 70 volts.
  • It has extreme voltage across emitter and base terminal is 7 volts.
  • Its extreme current at collector point is 15 ampere.
  • Its maximum working intersection temperature is 150 centigrade.
  • Its Changeover Frequency (ft) is 3 MHz.
  • Its onward current transmission ratio (hFE) is 20.

Maximum Ratings of TIP2955

Symbols	Ratings	Parameters
VCEO	60V	These are the voltage across collector and emitter.
VCER	70 V	These are the voltage across collector and emitter.
VCBO	100 V	These are the voltage across collector and base.
VEBO	7V	It is the voltage across emitter and base.
IC	15A	It is the current at the collector.
IB	7A	It is the value of current at the base terminals.
PD	90 W 0.72 W/°C	Total Power Dissipation at TC = 25°C. Derate Above 25°C.
TJ, TSTG	-65 to +150 C	It is working and Storing Connection Temperature Range

Electrical Characteristics

Symbols	Ratings	Parameters
VCEO	60V	These are C-E Supporting Voltage. (IC = 30 mA, IB = 0)
ICER	1mA	It is the collector Cut-off Current. (VCE = 70 V, RBE = 100 ?)
ICEO	0.7mA	It is the collector Cut-off Current. (VCE = 30 V, IB = 0)
ICEV	5mA	It is the collector Cut off Current (VCE = 100 V, VBE (off) = 1.5 V)
IEBO	5mA	It is the emitter Cut off Current. (VEB =7 V, IC = 0)
hFE	20 5	It is the DC current Gain. (IC = 4 A, VCE = 4 V) (IC = 10 A, VCE = 4 V)
VCE	1.1V 3V	These are the Collector-Emitter Saturation Voltage. (IC = 4 A, IB = 0.4 A) (IC = 10 A, IB = 3.3 A)
VBE	1.8V	Base-Emitter on Voltage (IC = 4 A, VCE = 4 V)

TIP2955 as Voltage Regulator

• Now we discuss how it works as the voltage regulator. For this, we discuss the circuit diagram.
• Here is the circuit illustration of a potent 12V regulator that can carry up to 15 A of current. The communal voltage regulator IC 7812 (IC1) is rummage-sale to keep the voltage at stable 12V and three TIP 2599 power transistors in parallel are underwired in series permit style to increase the output current.
• The 7812 can deliver only up to 1A and respite of the current is provided by the series permit transistors. The 15A bridge B1 does the work of rectifying the stepped downcast AC input.
• The C1, C2, and C3 capacitors in this circuit are working as a filter. The 1A fuse F1 defends the IC1 from an excess of current in circumstance if the pass transistors flop. The 15A fuse F2 shields the complete circuit (particularly the pass transistors) from overcurrent.
• When you are working on such circuits which are using current transformers high current consuming bridge circuits this circuitry is expensive and you can try this only if there is a solemn essential.

Applications of TIP2955

• These are particular applications of TIP2955.
  • It is collective tenacity transistor it can be used in different manufacturing projects.
  •  It is used as an Audible Amplifier.

So it was all about TIP2955 if you have any question please ask in comments. Take care until the next tutorial.

Introduction to TIP3055

Hello friends, I hope you all are doing great. In today's tutorial, we are gonna have a look at detailed Introduction to TIP3055.  TIP3055 is a silicon epitaxial-ignoble NPN transistor, which is assembled in TO-218 malleable parcels. It is the best device for power swapping circuits, parallel and series controllers (regulators), output phases and high power amplifiers. Its corresponding PNP transistor is TIP2955. It is a universal device used in many industrial projects where audio amplification is required. Its structures are attractive much the identical excluding for the maximum power indulgence that is a slightly lesser. In today’s post, we will have a look at its fortification, smashup, prominence, proposals, etc. I will also share some links where I have correlated it with other microcontrollers. You can also get more material about it in comments, I will guide you more about it. So, let’s get started with a basic Introduction to TIP3055. 

Introduction to TIP3055

• TIP3055 is a silicon epitaxial-ignoble NPN transistor, which is assembled in TO-218 malleable parcels. It is the best device for power swapping circuits, parallel and series controllers (regulators), output phases and high power amplifiers.
• It is prevailing in TO-247 pouring and it frequently used varied amplifiers initiatives.
• This module uses moderate power during its working, it uses 70 voltage across emitter and collector. It consumes fifteen amperes of current at the collector.

• It is the finest option for advanced steadfastness audile amplifier output point.
• This component has termination voltage V_ceo  (I_B =0) 60 volts.
• It has a unique extensive liability and particular excellence formation.
• Its Stowage temperature is -65 to 150 C and maximum working intersection temperature is 150 C.

Pinout of TIP3055

• These are the main pinout TIP3055 which are well-defined beneath.

• Pin#	Type	Parameters
  Pin#1	Emitter	The emitter is for an external drive of current.
  Pin#2	Base	The base administers the biasing of the transistor. It vagaries the state of the transistor.
  Pin#3	Collector	The collector is for the current inside drive. It is related to the load.

  Lest see a diagram of the pinout.

Entire Maximum Ratings of TIP3055

Now we discuss the rating parameters of TIP3055.

Symbols	Value	Parameters
VCBO	100 V	The voltage across collector and emitter (IE = 0).
VCER	70 V	The voltage across emitter and collector (RBE = 100 ?).
VCEO	60 V	The voltage across emitter and collector at (IB = 0).
VEBO	7 V	The voltage across the collector and base (IC = 0).
IC	15 A	The current value at the collector.
IB	7 A	The value of current at the base terminal.
Ptot	90W	Dissipation power at Tc =25°C.
Tstg	-65 to 150 C	Storing temperature.
TJ	150 C	Maximum Working intersection temperature.

Now we discuss the electrical characteristics of TIP3055.

Electrical characteristics

These are some important electrical characteristics.

Symbols	Test Conditions	Parameters
ICEX	VCE = 100 V TC = 150 C	The value of collector cut-off current (VBE = -1.5 V).
ICEO	VCE = 30 V	The value of collector cut-off current (IB = 0).
IEBO	VEB = 7 V	The value of emitter cut-off current (IC = 0).
VCEO	IC = 200 mA	Collector-emitter supporting voltage (IB = 0).
VCER	IC = 200 mA	Collector-emitter supporting  voltage (RBE = 100 ?)
VCE	IC = 4 A IB = 400mA IC = 10 A IB = 3.3 A	Collector-emitter permeation voltage.
VBE	Ic=4A VCE = 4 V	It is the voltage across base and emitter.
hFE	IC = 4 A IC = 10 A VCE = 4 V 20 VCE = 4 V 5	It is DC current gain.

Working of TIP3055

• Now we discuss the working of TIP3055 by a circuit. The corresponding circuit components and its connection are explained below let's discuss them with the details.
• This is the circuit of amplification of power in which I used TIP3055 and TIP2955 transistors as amplifiers which provides power up to 140RMS.
• This circuit is manufactured miniature and very modest, the bulwark portion is prepared by using IC ua741 or LM741 as op-amp.
• The ultimate transistor I have stated using TIP3055 and TIP2955 transistors, or you can elevate by adding some transistors or also swap with higher output power, for example using 2SC5200 and 2SA1943.
• We can power this circuit by balanced 45V voltage, power circuit arrangement and also PCB Layout are shown in the given diagram.

Circuit Component Description

• The components which I used in this circuit is explained below with their rating values.
• R1=100K, R2=1k, R3=1K, R4=15K, R5=15K, R6=1K, R7=47R, R8=47R, R9=47R, R10=470R, R11=470R, R12=47R, R13=0, 22 - 0, 5R/5W,  R14=0, 22 - 0, 5R/5W R15=56K, C1=220N, C2=100u/25V, C3=220u/25V, C4=220u/25V, C5=33p, C6=22p, RV1=TRIMMER 500R RV2=POTENTIOMETER 50K U1=LM741 / UA741 Q1=TIP41 Q2=TIP42 Q3=TIP2955/2N2955 Q4=TIP3055/2N3055

Circuit Troubleshooting

• If this  amplifer circuit is not working properly then you should check input voltage.
• Output speaker has DC voltage whining, please regulate the trimmer RV1 till the DC Voltage comes out.

  Applications of TIP3055

• These are some important applications of TIP3055.
  • It is universal persistence transistor it can be used in different industrial projects.
  •  It is used as an Acoustic Amplifier.

So, it was all about TIP3055, If you have any question about it ask in comments. Take care until the next tutorial.

Introduction to TIP122

Hello friends, I hope you all are doing great. In today's tutorial, we are gonna have a look at detailed Introduction to TIP122.  It is a Darlington braces NPN transistor. It works like an ordinary NPN transistor, but as it consists of a Darlington pair it has a decent collector current assessment of nearby 5 amperes and it's gain is around 1000. This transistor can bear 100 volts around collector and emitter terminals due to this feature it can be used for high loads. This is a common purpose transistor it used in different industrial projects. It manufactured for less time taking switching submissions. In today’s post, we will have a look at its protection, wreck, distinction, entitlements, etc. I will also share some links where I have connected it with other microcontrollers. You can also get more material about it in comments, I will guide you more about it. So, let’s get started with a basic Introduction to TIP122. 

Introduction to TIP122

• It is a Darlington braces NPN transistor. It works like an ordinary NPN transistor, but as it consists of a Darlington pair it has a decent collector current assessment of nearby 5 amperes and it's gain is around 1000.

• This transistor is famous for its higher gain of current which 1000 and it uses higher current at collector which is 5 amperes.
• Due to its higher gain of current and huge collector current (IC), it is used in such loads which use higher current and its uses for such submissions which required higher amplification.
• This transistor consumes less voltage only five volts across base and emitter, therefore, it can be effortlessly organized by a Logical expedient such as a microcontroller.
• Though precaution has to do to check if the logic expedient can supply up to 120 mA.
• So, if you are eyeing for a transistor which can be effortlessly organized by a Logical expedient to modification high power consuming loads or to intensify higher current then this transistor can be a perfect option for your solicitations.

  Pinout of TIP122

• These are the main pinout of TIP122:

Pin#	Type	Parameters
Pin#1	Emitter	Current comes out by the emitter, it is usually linked to ground.
Pin#2	Base	It governs the biasing of the transistor and works to turn ON or OFF the transistor.
Pin#3	Collector	Current movements in over collector, usually linked to load

Let's see a diagram of the TIP122 pinout:

Features of TIP122

• These are the main features of TIP122.
  • It is presented in TO-220 Compendium.
  • It is a Darlington Intermediate power consuming NPN Transistor.
  • It has Greater DC Current Gain, which value is 1000.
  • Its Nonstop Collector current (IC) is 5A.
  • Its voltage transversely collector and emitter are 100 volts.
  • The collector and base (Vce) voltage are 100 volts.
  • The quantity of (V_BE ) is 5 volts.
  • The value of the current at the base is 120 milliampere.

Working of TIP122

• • This transistor is recognized for its higher current gain which is 1000 and higher collector current 5 amperes, therefore, it is usually used to switch loads with higher current or in submissions which need higher intensification.
  •  This transistor has less base and emitter Voltage of the merely 5V henceforth can be effortlessly organized by a Logic instrument such as a microcontroller.
  • Though precaution has to be engaged to check, if the logic instruments can font up to 120mA.
  • Though TIP122 has extraordinary current at collector and current gain, it is impartially modest to switch the expedient meanwhile it has an Emitter-Base voltage (VBE) of the only 5V and Ib of merely 120mA.
  • In the lower circuit diagram, I have used the TIP122 to control a 48V motor which has an incessant current of around 3A.
  • The incessant collector current of this transistor is 5A and our load devours merely 3A which is well.
  •  The higher base current is around 120 mA, but I have used a higher worth of 100-ohm resistor to bound it to 42 mA.
  • You can also use even a 1K resistor if your collector current prerequisite is fewer.
  •  The highest current of this transistor is 8A so make certain your motor does not devour extra than that.
  •  This is disinterested a perfect circuit figure which displays the employed on this transistor it cannot be used as such.

Applications of TIP122

• These are the main applications of TIP122.
  • It is used to adjustment of high current loads such as 5 amperes.
  • It is used as an average Power switch.
  • It works where higher intensification is desirable.
  • It used for velocity controller of Motors.
  • It used in Inverter and other rectifier circuitries.

So, that was all about TIP122 if you have any question about it please ask in comments. I will reply to you as soon as possible. Thanks for reading.

What is Star Delta Transformation

Hello friends, I hope you all are doing great. In today’s tutorial, we will discuss What is Star Delta Transformation. We will also have a look at its inverse i.e. Delta to Star Transformation. In electrical systems, we have to deal with resistances a lot, arranged in different patterns i.e. parallel, series, mesh etc. Simple single-phase resistive circuits, where resistances are present in parallel or series combination, can be solved by using series or parallel formulas of resistances, there are also few other techniques i.e. Kirchoff's Laws, nodal analysis etc. to solve such circuits. But in the case of complex 3-phase resistive circuits, we can't use these basic formulas & thus need better techniques. Star to delta transformation method is one of them.

The star to delta transformation can also be expressed as Y-? transformation, it is a mathematical method used to solve complex resistive circuits in 3-phase electrical systems. Its name wye-delta is given to it because of its design. As shown in the figure, Star(wye) looks like Y, while Delta looks like ?.  This transformation technique from one form to another was given by Edwin Kennelly in 1899, who was an electrical engineer who belongs to the USA. Besides using in electrical circuitries star-delta transformation can also be used in maths to solve different planer graphs. In today’s post, we will have a look at its working, formula, equation, and uses. So, let’s get started with what is star-delta transformation?

What is Star Delta Transformation?

• The Star-Delta Transformation (Y-?) is a mathematical technique given by Edwin Kennelly in 1899 and is used to solve complex 3-phase resistive electrical circuits by transforming from Star(Y) design to Delta(?) design with the help of formulas.

Before going any further, let's first understand why we need Star to Delta Transformation?

Why Star Delta Transformation?

• We use Star-Delta transformation to simplify complex 3-phase circuits.
• These simplified versions are a lot easier to solve as compared to the original complex ones.
• So, such transformations actually save us from complex calculations, thus reduce errors & save time.

Now let's have a look at Star & Delta arrangements, one by one:

What is Star(Y) Network?

• If all resistances are connected to a common point(also called Joint) from one end, while the other end(of the resistances) is open, this connection styling is termed as Star Network or Y Connection(also called wye circuitry).
• Star Connection is also referred to as open-loop as there's no loop in it.
• Below figure shows the T-Shaped Normal circuit and its equivalent Y-Shaped Connection:

• We haven't performed any transformation in the above figure, instead, we have just draw a single circuit in two different styles, one is called T-shaped, while the second one is Y-shaped.
• In both of these forms, resistances are connected at a single common point called Junction/Joint, represented by J in the above figure.

Now let's have a look at How Delta Network looks like?

What is Delta(?) Network?

• If the resistances are creating a loop i.e. each end of resistance is connected to other resistance, such circuitry is termed as Delta Circuitry, Delta Network or Delta Connection, denoted by ?.
• Delta Connection is also referred to as a closed-loop as it involves a loop.
• Below figure shows the normal loop circuit and its equivalent Delta Circuit:

• Again we are not performing any transformation, instead, we are just displaying a single circuit in its two equivalent shapes.
• In both formats, resistances have created a loop and are connected to one another.

By now, you must have understood the difference between Star & Delta Connection and if you are presented with a circuit, you can easily find whether its a Star or a Delta. Now let's have a look at How to transform from one shape to another(i.e. Star to Delta & Delta to Star).

Star to Delta Transformation

• Transforming a circuit from Star Connection to Delta Connection is called Star to Delta Transformation.
• As shown in the below figure, both connections have the same number of resistances but their values are different.
• So, if we want to convert a Star Connection into a Delta one, then we need to find the values of all Delta resistances i.e. R_A, R_B & R_C.

So, let's have a look at How to drive equations for Star Delta Transformation.

Equation of Star Delta Transformation

• As shown in the above figure, we need to find the values of Delta resistances.
• In order to do so, let's find out the resistance between nodes.

Between N1 & N2:

• In star connection, the resistance between N1 & N2 is equal to R₁ + R₂.
• In Delta connection, resistance R_A is in parallel with R_B & R_C, so the resistance between N1 and N2 will be equal to R_A(R_B + R_C)/(R_A + R_B + R_C).  (using resistance parallel formula)
• As both circuits are equivalent, so the resistance between similar nodes must be equal and will give us equation A, shown below:

Between N2 & N3:

• The resistance between nodes N2 & N3 will give us equation B:

Between N3 & N1:

• The resistance between nodes N3 & N1 will give us equation C:

• Now let's add Equations A, B & C and we will get equation D, as shown in the below figure:

• Now let's subtract equations A, B & C from equation D and we will get values of R₁, R₂ & R₃, as shown in the below figure:

• Now by using these values of R₁, R₂ & R₃, we can get the value of R_A, R_B & R_C, as shown in the below figure:

• So, using these six equations, we can easily convert Star to Delta and Delta to Star, it will get more clear when we solve examples in the next section.

Example of Star Delta Transformation

• The star-? alteration complications are the finest samples to comprehend the idea of the circuitries.
• The resistance in a star system is represented with (X, Y, Z), which can be seen in the above diagram and the values of these resistances are (X= 80?), (Y= 120?), and (Z = 40?).

A= (XY/Z) +Y+X)

X= 80 ?, Y= 120 ?, and Z = 40 ?

• By putting these parameters in the above formula we calculate the value of A.

A = (80 X 120/40) + 120 + 80 )= (240 + 120 + 80 )= (440 ?)

• As we have find value of resistance (B) which is ((ZX/Y) + X+Z).
• Now we put values in this equation to find the value of B.

B = ((40X80/120) + 80 + 40) = (27 + 120) = (147 ?).

• Now we can calculate the value of resistance C by this equation

C= ((YZ/X) +Z+Y)

• Putting value in this equation we get C.

 ((120 x 40/80) + 40 + 120) = (60 + 160) = (220 ?)

Delta To Star Transformation

• Now we see how we can converts delta circuitry back to the star connection.
• Let's solve circuitry which is connected in the delta form and has 3 points a, b, c. The value of resistance among the joints a and b is (R1), resistance among the b and c is (R2), and c and d are (R3).

• The value of resistance among the points and b is given here.

(Rab) = (R1)??(R1+R2)

= [(R1).(R2+R3)]/[(R1+R2+R3)]

• You can see there is another circuitry that is connected in the Y connection it has three branches a, a, c which has resistance (Ra, Rb, Rc).
• If we find the resistance among points a and b then we have.

(Rab) = (Ra+Rb)

• As both of these circuitries are equivalent so the value of resistance is measured among points a and b.

(Ra+Rb)=[(R1). (R2+R3)]/(R1+R2+R3)----(x)

• So the resistance values will also same in the among points b and c.

(Rb + Rc)=[(R2). (R3+R1)]/(R1+R2+R3)---(y)

• And the value of resistance among the c and a will also same.

(Rc + Ra)=[(R3) x (R1+R2)]/(R1+R2+R3)---(z)

• If we add expressions  (x),(y),(z) then we have.

(2)(R1+R2+R3)= 2[(R1.R2)+(R2.R3)+(R3.R1)]

(R1+R2+R3) =[(R1.R2)+(R2.R3)+(R3.R1)]/[(R1+R2+R3)]----(d)

• If we subtract the equation (x),(y), (z) from equation (d) then we have.

Ra =(R3.R1)/(R1+R2+R3)---(e)

Rb =(R1.R2)/(R1+R2+R3)---(f)

Rc=(R2.R3)/(R1+R2+R3)--(g)

• The expression of the Y-? transformation can be defined as.
• From equations e,f,g we can conclude that the resistance in star configuration is equivalent to the multiple of the 2 resistors joined with the identical point divided by the sum of all resistors in the ? circuitry.
• If in the delta circuitry the values of all resistors are identical then the correspondent resistance value (r) in the star circuit will be.

r = (R.R)/(R+R+R)

r= R/3

Advantage of Star Delta Conversion

• These are some advantages of this transformation which are described here.
  • Star transformation is well suitable for transport voltages to long distances and it also has a neutral point that can be used to the unbalanced transient current of the circuitry to the ground.
  • Delta transformation can transport balance three-phase voltage(V) without any neutral (n) wire which marks ? best for Transmission network.

It was a detailed article on Star Delta transformation if you have any questions about it ask in the comments. Take care until the next tutorial.

What is Bypass Diode

Hello friends, I hope you all are doing great. In today’s tutorial, we will discuss What is Bypass Diode. Bypass diode is used in photovoltaic modules. The main purpose of the diode in photovoltaic modules is to reduce the hot-spot (It is a heating phenomena that occurs when the photovoltaic cells are joined in a sequence and due to reverse current lot of power loss occur in the PV module) fact that is harmful to the photovoltaic cells and it can burn the cell if the light coming on the surface of the module is not distributed uniformly. For removal of the hot-spots, bypass diodes are connected with the substring of the photovoltaic devices the single bypass diode is connected twenty photovoltaic cells. Due to such arrangements, photovoltaic modules gives good efficiency during its operating life. In today's post, we will have a look at working, features, applications and circuits of bypass diodes. So let's get started with what is Bypass Diode.

What is Bypass Diode

• Bypass Diodes are connected in photovoltaic arrangements for the protection of such cells that are completely under the solar light and working properly from such cells that are not working or not in the solar light.
• Soler cells are the cheapest way to produce electricity from the sunlight. We can change the location of the solar panels according to our requirements.
• The solar cells are available in numerous power rating, from some mW to thousands mW.
• A solar cell is a photodiode that transformed the sunlight into the electricity. The photovoltaic panel produces electricity when the photocells are connected in a sequence.

• Usually, it is acknowledged that all the cells in the solar panel are producing equal power.
• But there are some conditions that affect the power production of the cell, like environment temperature, humidity in the air location of the panel.
• The principal fact of the power failure of the solar cell is the shading, that reduced the quantity of the light coming to the light. Shading can be due to some tree, wall of the house, or any other building.
• If the shading remains on some cells of the panel there will be less power generation through this panel, to eradicate the effect of the cells that have shading bypass diodes are used in the solar panel.

Features of the Bypass Diode

• These are the main features of the bypass diode.
  • The value of the reverse biasing voltage for this diode is thirty volts.
  • The forward biased functioning current of the diode is fifteen amperes.
  • Minimum forward biased voltage for this diodes is twenty-six milli-volts at eight amperes.
  • The operating temperature for this diode is minus forty to one twenty-five celsius.

Photovoltaic Solar Cell Construction

• In the given diagram, the complete circuit of the solar panel with the bypass diode is constructed, let's discuss it with the detailed.
• The current that we get from the solar panel is the direct current similar to the output power of the battery.
• When the output terminals of the solar cell are open than the voltage at these points will be 0.5 to 0.6 volts.
• The value of the terminals voltage of the solar cells relies on the load attached to the cell.

• For instance, when there is no sunlight due to the clouds the current required by the load will be lighter and the voltage at the ends will be rated value of the cell.
• But if we do increment in load on the terminals of the cells so there is need of the sunlight to maintain the output voltage of the load connected.
• So there is a boundary under that the one solar cell can provide extreme power, it doesn't matter either sunlight is exits or not.
• This amount of the current is recognised as the extreme deliverable current of the cell and denoted as I_MAX.
• The value of the maximum current relies on the area of the cell, angle with the sun, the effectiveness of the cell, and the substances used to assemble the solar cell.
• During the combination of the bypass diode with the photocell,  you should keep in mind the value of the I_MAX.

Diodes in Photovoltaic Arrays

• A diode is a device that used to transforms alternating current in the direct current.
• Unidirectional working feature of the diode can be used in different circuitries to stop the unnecessary movement of the current.
• When the diodes are used in the solar cells that are known as the blocking diodes.
• In solar panel bypass diodes are joined with the one or more than one cells in parallel combination.
• These diodes help to stop unnecessary current movements towards such diodes that are not working properly, or under shading. In this way, we get the desired output current from the solar panel.
• The connection of the bypass diodes is in parallel with the cell to stop current about it while blocking diode is attached series for the reverse movement of the current towards the cell.
• Both bypass and the blocking diode are different categories of the diodes, as they do different work.

Bypass Diodes in Photovoltaic Arrays

• As we discussed that the diode is a uni-direction component. In the given figure there are 2 coloured diodes are connected with the solar panel array.
• Green colour diodes are the bypass diode that is attached with the solar cell in parallel combination for less resistance path.
• The other 2 red diodes are blocking diodes that are linked with every branch of the circuitry in series.
• Both bypass and blocking diodes are similar in physical structure but according to their use, they are different.
• Blocking diodes also recognized as the isolation diode because they provide blocking for the current to flow toward any cell instead of going towards the output load.
• This series diodes help to avoid other parallel cell's current to flow adjacent cell and it also stops the current of the storing batteries to the cell in case of the night when there is zero production of the current at the cell.

Applications of Bypass Diode

• These are the applications of the bypass diode.
  • It used in solar panels.
  • It used in power optimization process and used as a microinverter.

It is the detailed article on the bypass diode I mentioned each and everything related to bypass diode in this post if you have any question ask in comments. Thanks for reading.

What is the Current Source

Hello friends, I hope you all are doing great. In today’s tutorial, we will discuss What is the Current Source. In an electrical system, there are two main sources first one is a voltage source and the other one is the current source. There are further two types of current sources real and ideal current source. The current produced by the ideal current source has the same value irrespective the variation in the circuitry voltage. As the current of the ideal source does not depend on any parameter of circuitry like the voltage, resistance, so it also called independent source. The current source is the correspondent of the voltage source. In today's post, we will have a look at its working, types, circuits, ideal sources and some other related factors. So let's get started with the what is the current source.

What is the Current Source

• The Current Source is an active component of the circuitry that provides the constant current in a circuit irrespective of the variation in the voltage of the circuitry.
• From the definition of the current source, we can conclude that it is the ideal source. But, in real-world, there are no ideal sources exits.
• For example, it can explain that if we connect an ideal source with open circuitry it will not work.

• There are two main factors that described the working of the practical current source. First is its inner resistance and other is compliance voltage.
• The maximum voltage that the current source can deliver to the load is called compliance voltage.
• During the variation in the load the current source work like ideal source, provides the unlimited resistance but, when the voltage value at the output reaches to compliance voltage, then it starts to behave like a real source and provides the limited value of resistance.

Ideal Current Source

• The current source that has unlimited resistance and delivers the same value of the current to load.
• Similar to the voltage source the ideal current sources has two types of dependent and independent current sources.
• The independent sources are such devices that used to resolve such circuitries that have active components like transistors, diodes, etc.
• The simple example of the current source is the resistance that is connected with the voltage source to produce a small value of the current from a few mA to hundred ampers.

Connections of the Current Source

• The current sources can be joined with one another to increment and decrement in the value of the current.
• There are two methods by that they are connected with each other according to the circuitry demand. First one is a series and the other is parallel.
• Let's discuss these two connections methods one by one.

Current Source in Parallel

• You can see in the given diagram that the 2 current sources are connected parallel. Parallel connected current sources behave like a single source and its output is the sum of the currents of 2 sources.

• In given circuitry, there are 2 five ampers current sources are connected in parallel the output current will be the sum of these two sources current that is ten amperes.
• The sources that have different values can also connect parallel, like if we connect 10-amper and 8-ampere sources in parallel there output will be 18 amperes.

Parallel Opposing Current Sources

• Now we study what will be the effect if we connect the source in the opposite direction.
• In given circuitry two 10 amperes current sources are connected in parallel. The method to get the output of such circuitry is to subtract the value of the 2 current sources, in the given diagram the first circuitry will have zero current.
• In 2nd circuitry there is two parallel-connected circuitry that has 10 amperes and 5-ampere current value, their output will be 5 amperes.

Current Sources in Series

• Now we discuss the behaviour of the series-connected current sources.
• It is not good to connect current sources in a series.
• The reason is that the series-connected sources output current do not follow the addition and subtraction rule.
• In given circuitry, there are 2 ten amperes current source are connected in series their output can not be 20 amperes in series combination.

Practical Current Source

• As we have discussed above that the ideal current source provides the constant current irrespective of the variation in the output load. Due to this fact it also is known as the independent source.
• So we can say that the ideal current source has unlimited value of the resistance.

• Theoretically, an ideal source is exiting but practically the current source have larger value resistance but not infinity like the ideal source.
• The practical current sink can be constructed like an ideal source if it is linked with the inner resistance in parallel.
• In given circuitry, the resistance (R1) produce the same effect that the resistance connected in parallel with ideal source do.
• As these two circuitries are equivalent so the voltage drop value will also similar.
• You can see from the diagram that circuitry of the real source looks like an equivalent circuitry of the Norton, Norton says that any circuitry can be substituted with such circuitry that has one resistance and parallel source with it.
• If the value of the resistance (R1) is higher or unlimited then practical source looks like an ideal source.

Comparison between Current and Voltage Sources

Voltage Source

• Mostly electric power source like battery and electric supply in our homes are known as the voltage source.
• All of these sources deliver the same value of the voltage, as the current passing through the circuitry within limits.
• In case of open circuitry, ideal source delivers 0 power but when it is short-circuited it has unlimited power.
• An ideal source has 0 value of resistance when it connected in series circuitry.
• The practical source has some value of resistance but not zero, almost less than one O.
• Try to avoid the use of the ideal sink in the short-circuited arrangments, and not connect it with such source whose voltage value is not similar to the ideal source.

 Current Source

• Current source delivers the same value of the current, till that point the resistance of the load is very less.
• In the case of the short-circuited conditions, the ideal current delivers 0 power but in case of the open circuitry, it gives the unlimited value of power and voltage.
•  Contrary to the ideal sink the practical current sink has the higher but the limited value of the resistance.
• Like voltage source try to avoid the use of the ideal current sink in open-circuited arrangements and with a source that does not have similar current to the ideal source. But sometimes such arrangments used for complementary metal oxides semiconductor circuitries.

It is the detailed article on the current source, I have each and everything related to the current source. If you have any question about voltage source ask in comments. Thanks for reading take care till the next tutorial.    

What is the Voltage Source

Hello friends, I hope you all are doing great. In today’s tutorial, we will discuss What is the Voltage Source. The source is a device that transformed thermal energy, chemical energy, mechanical energy or any type of energy in the electrical form of energy. We can say that the source is such an instrument manufactured for generating electrical power. The voltage source has 2 endpoints by which it connects in the circuitry, the ideal voltage source gives the constant value of the voltage in a circuitry irrespective of the variation in the resistance of the output. While non-ideal voltage source cannot provide the same voltage to the circuitry during load variation. The voltage source is the correspondent of the current source. This eclectic source ( voltage source) can be classified as the direct current or alternating current sources, the source which provides the constant value of voltage is called dc and other is called alternating source in this source polarity of voltage changes after some interval of time like sine waveform. The battery is the example of the direct current (DC) source and the power supplies in our homes is known (AC) sources. In today's post, we will have a look at its circuit, types, use and working. So, let's get started with what is the voltage source.

What is the Voltage Source

• The voltage source is an instrument which delivers the constant value of voltage in a circuitry irrespective of the variation in the resistance offered by the load.
• Such voltage source is also named as an ideal voltage source. In real-world such voltage source can be created, by assigning the 0 inner resistance and it can deliver constant voltage.

• The graphical representation of the ideal source is drawn in the figure. You can see that it is the straight line at any point of the time axis.
• If there is some quantity of internal resistance is exiting in the source then it is named as a real voltage source.
• As there is inner resistance is present in the source this causes to loss of voltage in the circuitry according to the value of this resistance in the circuitry.
• The graphical representation of the practical voltage source is drawn in the given diagram.

Types of Voltage Source

• There are the two main types of the voltage source first one is dependent source and other is the independent.
• The dependent voltage source has further two types.
  • Voltage control voltage source
  • current control  current source
• Independent source also has two catagories.
  • DC Voltage source
  • AC voltage source
• Now discuss all these categories one by one

Independent Voltage Source

• This voltage source provides the constant value of the voltage, its voltage value does not depend on the other parameters of circuitry like resistance, or capacitance of the circuitry.

 DC Voltage Source

• This voltage source provides the constant voltage at the output is called a dc source.
• In this source, the electrons move in the same direction, so its polarity will not vary.
• The output voltage of this source will remain the same, it will not vary with the time.
• The examples of the dc voltage sources are the direct current generator, battery, or cell.

Alternating Voltage Source

• Such voltage source generates the AC current as output is known as the alternating source.
• In this source the polarity of voltage changes after a specific interval of time.
• Due to the variation in the voltage for after some time current also changes its direction.
• Examples of such sources are Ac generators or direct current to alternating current converter
• The given diagram shows the circuit of the alternating voltage source.

Dependent Voltage Sources

• The output of the source does not remain constant but continuously vary is called a dependent voltage source.
• Its output voltage varies according to the changing in the other parameters of circuitry like current, resistance.
• If the voltage of the source depends on the voltages of other components of the circuitry then it called voltage-controlled voltage source.
• If the value of the voltages of the voltage source depends on the current of the other components then it known as the current-controlled voltage source.
• The given diagram shows all these voltage sources.

Comparison Between Voltage Source and Current Source

Voltage source

• Mostly sources of electrical power like battery are known as a voltage source.
• In case of open circuitry, the ideal source delivers no power, in case of short circuitry it gives infinite power.
• This ideal device has the 0-ohm internal resistance but the practical source has less value of inner resistance but not zero.

Current Source

• The current source delivers the non-variable current when the connected load has less value of resistance.
• In the case of the short circuitry, the ideal source delivers the no power, but in case of open circuit, its power value becomes infinity.
• The ideal source has infinite resistance value and the practical source has high but in some limit value of the resistance.

Ideal Voltage Source

• The source which has no interior resistor (R) is named as an ideal source.
• It incomes that there is no voltage drop in the source, due to this we get the same voltage at output points which were produced by the source.
• Each practical (applied) voltage source like the battery has some value of resistor which causes to drop of voltage.
• To understand the practical difference among the ideal and practical source we discuss an example.
• In case of ideal source, if we have five volts battery, it will give five volts at output points as it has no internal resistance.
• But in case of practical voltage source, we do not get five volts at terminals due to some loss of voltage at interior resistance ®.

It is the detailed article about the voltage source if you have any question about it ask in comments. Thanks for reading. Take care until the next tutorial.  

What is Magnetic Hysteresis

Hello friends, I hope you all are doing great. In today’s tutorial, we will discuss What is Magnetic Hysteresis. Hysteresis occurs in different substances due to the 2 different factors first one is magnetization of the material and second is the variation in the quantity of the magnetic domains of the material (it is the part of any magnetic substance where the magnetization is uniform). All magnet do not show the same magnetizing property throughout its structure, but it varied continuously. In small size magnets, magnetization is same in the complete structure. While in the large size magnet the magnetization is not similar throughout the complete structure, due to different magnetization they are distributed into the different areas that are known as the domains. In these domains the magnetization is alike but there is an area among the domains where the domains are not aligned in a similar fashion. In today's post, we will have a look at the fact of these domains in the magnetic substance and how they produce the hysteresis in materials. So let's get started with What is Magnetic Hysteresis.

What is Magnetic Hysteresis

• When the exterior magnetic field is provided to the ferromagnetic substance like iron, the dipoles of different iron's atom arrange themselves with the direction of the applied magnetic field this fact is known as magnetic hysteresis.

• When we eliminate the field around the iron material it still shows magnetic properties due to the alignments of the domains of the iron.
• To extract the residual magnetic properties, there is a need of some heat or magnetic field is provided with different polarity.
• The graphical representation among the magnetic field intensity H and magnetization M of the ferromagnetic material is shown in a given figure.
• You can see from the figure that the magnetization of the material increases first then it get saturated and there is no further increase in with the field intensity increment.
• When we demagnetize the magnetic element its magnetization curve does not follow the field intensity H, but it has some value when the external field is zero.
• This feature of the material to have some amount of the magnetization is known as the remanence.
• The curve constituted by association of the magnetization M and field intensity H is recognized as the hysteresis loop. The area of the loop depends on the magnetization material in case of the iron it will be larger.
• If you see the given curve you will observe that it is not linear but there are a lot of turns in the curve that called Barkhausen jumps (it is a line to which the curve meets).

Magnetization and Field Intensity Curve

• In the given diagram, the magnetization and field intensity curve of the steel and iron is drawn.
• We can observe from the figure that the magnetization of the materials increases with the increment of the field intensity after some time the increment in the flux density decreases while still, the intensity of the field is increasing.

• It is because all domains of the materials have become aligned with the external field, so there is no further increase in the magnetization of the substance this point at the curve is known as the saturation region.

Retentivity

• For the explanation, suppose that we have a wire of the iron and it is connected with the battery and all the domains are aligned with the external field and the conductor is fully magnetized.
• Now if we remove the external power source from the conductor, then the iron should be totally demagnetized, but it did not happen.
• It is due to some residual magnetization of the material, this property of any material to have some magnetization when it is not connected with the battery is known as the retentivity.
• The reason for this is that some domains of the wire are still magnetized instead of the removal of the battery from the terminals of the conductive wire.
• The amount of retentivity is different for the different materials like steel gets demagnetized very soon but in the case of iron, its value is higher.
• To magnetize any material we need to provide the magnetic field intensity with the opposite polarity.
• The force provided by the opposite polarity magnetic field is known as the coercive force.

Soft Magnetic Material

• When we removed the external field from any conductor then it still has some magnetization properties the value of the magnetization is different for different materials. To demagnetize the substance we provide the external field with opposite polarity.
• The amount of the force need to demagnetize is known as the hysteresis loos.
• The value of this energy is different for different materials like in steel its value is less so it called soft magnetic materials.
• The curve for these materials has less area.

Hard Magnetic Materials

• There is another type of materials that required a large amount of the energy for demagnetization and have larger area are known as the hard magnetic materials.
• The coercive force of these materials is larger than the soft magnetic material.

• The energy required for the demagnetization of these materials is larger than the soft materials.
• The curve for these materials is shown in the given figure.

Applications of the Magnetic Hysteresis

• These are some applications of the magnetic hysteresis
• Mostly motor driver circuits are constructed by the hard magnetic materials.
• Speakes, tape recorders are made by such materials that have higher magnetic properties.
• Our personals computers are also used for magnetic substances.
• Different electronic instruments like energy meter, sensing devices also used hard magnetic materials.
• In medical devices like MRI also used hard magnetic substances.
• Soft magnetic material is used in the transformer core because they can easily magnetize and demagnetized.

It is the detailed article on the magnetic hysteresis I have explained each and everything related to magnetic hysteresis if you have any question ask in comments. Thanks for reading. Take care until the next tutorial.  

Transistor as a Switch

Hello friends, I hope you all are doing great. In today’s tutorial, we will have a look at Transistor as a Switch. The transistor is a 3 pin semiconductor module used for different amplifier and switching circuits. It was created by William Shockley (who was a physicist of United States of America) in 1947. It also used in different engineering projects and circuitry. Depending on doping level transistors are classified into 2 types first one NPN and the second one is PNP transistor. Most transistors are constructed from silicon and germanium but other semiconductor materials are also used for construction of transistors. In today's post, we will discuss how we can use a transistor as a switch and also see its practical working in different circuits. So let's get started with Transistor as a Switch.

Transistor as a Switch

•  For understanding the working of a transistor as switch we use bipolar junction transistor (BJT) and will construct its current versus voltage curve.
• There are 3 regions in which transistor operates the first one is active, second one is saturation and third one is cut-off region.
•  In the first region that is active regions, transistor operates as an amplifier.
• But in other 2 regions that are saturation region in which transistor is in on state and cut-off region in which transistor is off, work as a switch.
• Now we discuss these three regions one by one with detailed.

Transistor Operation Region

• In the given figure the current and voltage characteristics curve is shown.

• In this curve you can see that the portion at the below of curve has pink colour is denoted as Cut-off portion and blue colour portion is known as saturation portion of the transistor.

Let's discuss these two regions of transistors with detailed. Transistor Cut-off Region 

• In this operation region of a transistor the value of current at base is zero (IB=0) so the value of current at collector will also 0.
• The value of voltage across the collecter and emitter terminals (VCE) is higher that cause to make larger depletion layer in the transistor and zero current flows through the component.
• So the transistor is completely off meant it is an open cirucit.

Transistor Saturation Region

• In this portion, the transistor will have such biasing that the amount of current at base terminal is maximum that causes to flow extreme current through the collector.
• The value of the voltage at collector and emitter terminals will be zero so there will be no depletion layer and a large amount of current will passes through the transistor and it behaves like a closed switch.
• In a simple way, we can define saturation region as it will occur when the current flows through the collector are extreme and the voltage across base terminals is 0.7 volts it is for NPN transistor.

• In the case of PNP, the emitter should be connected with a positive terminal of battery.

Working of Transistor as Switch

• For a practical understanding of transistor as a switch we discuss a circuit that is shown in a given figure.

• In this circuit, NPN transistor is used as a switch its collector and emitter is points are working as terminals of switch.
• A circuit that consists of the bulb as load is connected with the collector and emitter terminals of transistor.
• The base and emitter of transistor working as a controller that decides open and closed condition of switch.
•  For closed the switch the battery is connected between base and emitter terminals.

• This source provides large amount of base current due to that collector current flows in the collector and emitter circuitry.
• The value of collector current will be larger if the resistance between collector and emitter is almost zero.
• In the above figure, you can see that emitter is at ground potential so we can also suppose that collector is also zero potential. So, in this case, resultant circuit can be constructed as.

• You can see that terminal of switch that are collector and emitter are closed and bulb is illuminating as a large collector current flowing through it.
• To open the terminals of switch we remove the current passing through the base.
• As Ic=ßIb so due to zero value of base current the collector current also zero and it behave like an open switch.

Applications of Transistor as a Switch

• The structure of a transistor is such that collector current will not flow until there is no source of current at base.
• Due to this feature, it mostly used in different electronics circuitry as a switch.
• So we discuss such circuits that used transistor as a switch, for an explanation of such circuits we use NPN transistor.

Light-Operated Switch

• In given below circuit transistor is used as switch for on and off bulb. In this circuitry there is LDR, bulb and voltage divider circuitry is formed.
• This circuitry is operated in light and in dark it does not work.
• When photons of light collide with light-dependent resistance it starts to operate and current flows through base than collector that glows the bulb.

Heat-Operated Switch

• In given below the transistor is used in heat operated switch the main element of this circuitry is a thermistor.
• A thermistor is a type of resistance that operates with the variation of temperature.
• There is an increment in its resistance with the decrement in temperature and with the increment of temperature resistance decreases.
• So in this circuitry when temperature increases the resistance of thermistor decreases so base current starts to flow that causes the movement of current through the circuit.
• Then at output alarm starts to operate after receiving a signal from the transistor.

That is a detailed article on transistor as a switch if you have any question about it ask in comments. Thanks for reading.