The Engineering Projects

What are Light Sensors

Hello friends, I hope you all are doing great. In today’s tutorial, we will have a look at What are Light Sensors and how to use them. Light sensors are such components that sense the surrounding light and transform it into the current. Such sensors are normally used in different applications such as switching circuits and for security purpose. When they used in different security circuits these sensors detect the variation in the light then they send the signal to the alarm. There are numerous types of light detectors components but there operating principle is similar. The most commonly used types of light sensors are a light-emitting diode, photodiodes, infrared radiation (IR) detectors, etc. In today's post, we will have a look at working, features, circuits, application and some other related terms so let's get started with what are light sensors.

What are Light Sensors

• Such sensors that transform the light or infrared radiation into the electrical current are known as the light sensors.
• These sensors are also named as the photoelectrical detector, due to the conversion of the photons of the into the electrical energy.

• There are 2 main categories of the photosensors first one is that generates the electrical current when light collides with them are known as the photovoltaic sensors.
•  The second one is that varies its electrical parameters like resistance are defined as the photoconductors.
• Such photo sensors that produce a voltage directly proportional to the amount of the light collided with them are known as photocells.
• There are such photosensors used in different circuitries to regulate the value of the current are known as photo junction modules. Such modules are used in different security circuits and electronic projects.

Photoconductive Cell

• This light detector module does not transform light into the electric current but the variation in its physical parameters occurs.
• The photoresistor is the example of these sensors when the light collided with this sensor varies the value of the resistance is also varied not light converted it to the current.
• Using this photosensor the value of the current is controlled in different circuits and engineering project, the normally used photoconductor is the light-dependent resistor (LDR).

Now we discuss it with detailed.

Light Dependent Resistance

• Light-dependent resistors are also known as the photoresistors, these light sensors are used in the different engineering projects to control the light strength for different components.
• It is constructed from the Cds (cadmium) this substance is very sensitive to light and according to the intensity of the light, it varies the value resistance.
• The working principle of the LDR is based on the photoconductivity, according to this the by an increase of the light the value of the conductive behaviour of materials increases.
• Light-dependent resistors modules are also called dependent device as its resistance varies according to light in the shadowy resistance is higher while in light resistance is less.

• In such region where light is not present LDR's resistance is known as dark resistance its value is up to the 10¹² ohm.

What is the Light Dependent Resistor Cell

• The normally used type of the LDR cell is OPR12 it is manufactured by the cadmium sulphide. This sensor operates for such radiation that has six hundred nanometers wavelength of radiations.
• This sensor has large value of the resistance in shadow almost ten megaohms but in case of the light, its value is almost a hundred ohms.
• This cell is less expensive it mostly used in such devices that used at night in streets for illumination. In different cameras and photographic devices, it also used.
• If we connect this senor with the normal resistance and provide voltage to it than the circuit formed by this arrangments has benefits, that for different wavelengths of the light it produces different voltages. This circuit arrangement is shown in a given figure.
• The voltage drops across the series resistance R2 can find the voltage divider rule.

Photodiode

• The structure of the photodiode is alike to the normal diode, the only difference is that it has a coating of such material that absorbs the light.
• This coating absorbed mostly such lights that have less frequency than larger frequency.
• Light-emitting diodes are also recognized as the photo-diode because it can easily send and received light.
• When the light collides with the surface of the photodiode, hole and electrons pair are created in the module.
• Due to the formation of the hole and electrons current starts to flow in the diode.
• These pairs are created when the light collided with the diode has energy almost 1.1 electron volts.
• When the light energy collides the atoms than the electrons of the atom after gaining this energy left the atom and holes-electrons pairs are created.

• The charge on the electrons is negative and holes behave like positive charges.
• Due to the depletion regions, electrons and hole can not move from one part to other of the diode so electrons move towards the positive terminal of the diode and hole to the negative terminal.

Applications of Light sensors

• These are the main applications of the light sensors that are described with the detailed.

Brightness Control

• In our mobile phone and laptops, we increasing and decreasing the resolution of the screen light is varied by light sensors.
• Ambient sensors are mostly used in electronic devices like mobiles, laptops and computers.
• These sensors are also used in different street light for the automatic control of light.

Security System

• In different security circuits, light sensors are used. In shipping, these sensors provide protection for the different products that are moving from one place to another.
• Light sensors are installed in the cabin where the products are saved when someone tries to open the door light sensor sense slight and sends a signal to the alarm connected with it.

Agriculture

• The light of the sun plying the significant rule in agriculture for the production of the different crops.
• Different food seed requires a different quantity of light, so it is important to know which part of the land is under the sunlight.
•  These sensors are used for the sprinkling of water when the sunlight is not available because most of the water will be converted into the moisture.

Sources

• For you further understanding you can read some other light sensors and their interfacing with Arduino and microcontroller.
• Laser Sensor 
• Infrared Sensor interfacing with Arduino
• HC-SR04
• Automatic Street Light Project in Proteus
• PIR Sensor Arduino Interfacing
• Infrared Sensor Library for Proteus
• IR Interfacing with 555 Timer

It is the detailed article on the light sensors if you have any question ask in comments. Thanks for reading. Take care until the next tutorial.

What are Position Sensors

Hello friends, I hope you all are doing great. In today’s tutorial, we will have a look at What are Position Sensors and their practical implementation. Position sensors are such instruments used to detect the variation in the position of different components, or human beings. All movement controls networks comprise of such components that send information about the component or devices location connected with the network. These movement detectors are normally used in industries to control the operation of different machines. Theses devices measure the complete variation in the position of the different tools or after some intervals of the time. These modules also have the ability to retains the data about the movements of a different tool, or machines. In today's post, we will have a look at different position sensors, their working, applications and some other parameters. So let's get started with What are Position Sensors.

What are Position Sensors

• There are many types of position sensors are used in different engineering projects and industrial machines. Some are listed here, we will discuss all of them with detail.
  • Potentiometer
  • Linear Variable Differential Transformer
  • Inductive Proximity Sensors
  • Rotary Encoders

 Potentiometer

• In almost every position detecting circuit or network, the potentiometer is used, due to its less cost, flexibility and easy to install features.
• It consists of the wiper like connected with the cars front screen, this wiper is linked with the shaft like different motors or generators, when the slider moves then its connection point resistance changes that convert into the electrical signal as an output.
• This resistance and the variation in the position of the slider are directly proportional to each other.
• These movement detectors are available in different structure and physical size, normally they are available in the cylindrical shape and flat structure.
• When they are installed in different circuitry the component whose motion to be detected is connected with the shaft of the potentiometer.

Linear Variable Differential Transformer

• As we are familiar with the transformer that used the phenomena of the mutual induction for its working.
• The linear variable differential transformer is and such position measurement module that transforms the smooth movement of any device into the current.
• Its construction is very simplest and can be installed in any condition and project.
• The most important part of this position sensor is a transformer and its core. The transformer has 3 windings one is on the primary side and the other 2 are on the secondary side. That is mention as S1 and S2 in the given figure.
• These two secondary windings are wound on the core that is made by the mixture of glass and polymers.
• These three windings are arranged in such a way that the 2 secondary windings are connected with the terminals of the primary windings that primary is in the centre and secondary windings are at left and right side of the primary.
• The other most important part of the linear variable differential transformer is the core that is manufactured by such material that has less resistance for the current movement.
• This core is linked with the non-conductive rod that acts as a shaft and this shaft is attached with the substance whose motion to be measured.

• The working principle of this sensor is that when the voltage provided to the primary side winding this voltage also induce voltage in the other secondary windings.
• The variation in the voltage values of the secondary windings indicates the distance covered by anybody connected with this sensor and angle between the voltages of the secondary windings tells about the direction followed by the substance.

Inductive Proximity Sensors

• This position sensor is also known as the eddy current sensor, and these components are not found position variation of anybody while they used to know the existing object near to it.
• These sensors are not connected physically with any other substance but they find the presence of any object by Faraday law.
• This sensor is consist of the core that is constructed by the ferromagnetic materials like iron and windings are wound around the core.
• When any conductive substance comes under the field of the inductive proximity sensor than the voltage induced in that substance is detected by the circuit of the sensor by this way he found the presence of any substance near it.

Rotary Encoders

• This position sensor has is similar to the potentiometer that we have discussed, but the difference is that potentiometer is to be connected with the device whose position to be measured but the rotary encoders find position without any connection.
• These sensors detect the movements of the substances and convert them into the electrical signal.
• These sensors are used light-emitting diode and disc that have different codes patterns that are mentioned in the binary system, decimal system or any other related system.

•  When the disc moves its rotation is measured by the photo-detecting modules the rotation than converted into the electrical signal and this electrical signal that transformed to the binary numbers that send to the counter, in this way movement is measured.

Applications of the Position Sensors

• These are some important applications of the positions sensors.
• These sensors are used to find the angle of steering of automobiles and location of the gear.
• Clutch position can also st by this sensor.
• Industries the locations of different machine parts are found by using different position sensors.
• These sensors are also used in nuclear plants.
• In industries, it used for the different physical structure testing.
• Positions sensors not only used in industries but also installed in the medical instruments like magnetic imaging machine.
• In the different office, you have seen that the door is closed and open automatically these are controlled by the position sensors.
• To find the movement in the structure of the different bridges in position sensors are employed.

So that all about the position sensors, if you have any question ask in comments. Thanks for reading.

What is Diode Clipper?

Hello friends, I hope you all are doing great. In today’s tutorial, we will have a look at What is Diode Clipper and how to use it in rectification circuits. In different circuits especially in rectifiers, the clipper is used to maintain the predefined voltage level. These circuits do not interrupt the original signal but only control the variation in the predefined value of the signal. These circuits eliminate the variation in the original waveform at the positive half and negative half.

These circuits are created by the combination of linear components such as resistance and non-linear components like transistors and diodes. These clipping circuits are also known as the slicers. In today's post, we will also have a look at such circuits that are consists of diodes, their uses and their working. So let's get started with What is Diode Clipper.

What is Diode Clipper?

• The diode limiter is the other name for diode clipper circuits, these circuits reshape the input waveform by removing some part from positive half or negative half according to requirements.
• Diodes clipper circuits can be used for the modification of the input signal according to the load requirements, the most used diodes in these circuits are Schottky and Zener diode with the general diode.
• Such clipper circuits that comprise of the diodes are used as the voltage limiter in different engineering projects and instruments.
• As we are familiar with the working of the diode as rectifier it operates when its positive end is linked with the positive terminal of the battery and negative terminal with negative of battery but in case of opposite polarity it does not operates.
• The working of the diode clipper circuits is also similar to the rectification by the diode.
• Now we discuss the different circuits for the practical observation of the diode clipper circuits.

Positive Diode Clipping Circuit

• In the given below diagram, you can see that circuit one diode is connected to resistance and input supply in forwarding biasing conditions.
• The positive in the name of circuit suggest that this circuit will eliminate the positive cycle of the input signal.
• Due to forward biasing the diode will operate only in the positive half as the operating voltage for the diode is 0.7 volts so there will be only 0.7 voltage loss across resistance and other will convert into the dc.
• When the negative half comes on the diode it does not work and provides higher resistance like open switch resistance.
• In the given diagram you can observe this phenomenon.

Negative Clipping Circuit

• From the name of the circuit, we can conclude that it will eliminate the negative half of the input signal. It is shown in the given below circuit.
• When the positive half of the input signal comes on the terminals due to reverse biasing there is no change in the signal due to higher value resistance.
• When the negative half of the wave comes, in this case, the diode is forward biased, so the current will pass through it and the voltage drop across this diode will be 0.7 volts this is the voltage for the starting operation of the diode.
• In the given figure, you can see this process with the detailed.

Biased Diode Clipper

• This clipper circuit consists of an external voltage source with the diode in series for the cutting of the input supply.
• There are 2 main types of biased diode clipper circuits.
  • Positive Biased Diode Clipper
  • Negative Biased Diode Clipper
• Let's discuss these two in detail.

Positive Biased Diode Clipper

• In this kind of clipper circuit, some part of the positive half of the input signal is eliminated and there is no variation in the negative half of the signal.
• When the input voltage at positive is larger than the voltage source connected with the diode then the diode will cut the larger voltage and the output voltage will be equal to the biased voltage.
• During the negative cycle, there is no variation in the voltage and this cycle will be shown completely at the output.
• For example, if the voltage at the input is five volts and biasing voltage is two volts than the output voltage will be 2 volts other three voltage will be cut by this circuitry.
• It is because if the input voltage value is lesser than the voltage source (biased voltage) connected with the diode then behaves in reverse biased conditions and it will stop the biasing voltage flowing through the diode.
• If the value of the voltage is higher than the bias voltage diode is working in forwarding biased mode and the current start to pass through the load resistance.

Negative Biased Diode Clipper

• In this type of clipping circuit, some portion of the negative half of the input signal will be eliminated. And there will be no effect on the positive half of the wave.
• If the voltage at input has a positive value than the diode will be in the reverse-biased mode.
• So it will behave like an open circuit and all the voltage will be appearing across the output resistance.
• In the case of the negative half if the voltage is higher than the biased voltage the diode is now working in the forward biasing condition. And the exceded value will be removed from the waveform, the resultant waveform is drawn in the given figure.

 Applications of the Diode Clippers

• These are some important applications of the diode clippers that are described here.

Reshape the Waveform:

• These circuits are used to vary the physical structure of the input wave according to our project requirements.
• By using these circuits the sine waveform can be changed into a square, rectangle or any other shape according to the circuit.

Circuit Transient Protection:

• Transient currents are very dangerous for any circuits that can damage our complete circuit, to stop all these transients current clipper diodes are also effective and can remove these transients.

It is a detailed article about diode clippers. If you have any questions ask in the comments. Thanks for reading. Take care until the next tutorial..

What are Sound Transducers

Hello friends, I hope you all are doing great. In today’s tutorial, we will discuss What are Sound Transducers. The transducer is a module used for the transformation of energy from one type to other types of energy. For instance, the loudspeaker converts the electrical signal into the sound. Transducers are mostly used in automation (It is a technology that used for a different process where most work is done with less manpower), measuring devices, and for the conversion of the electrical energy into the different physical parameters like force, sound, light, etc. In today's we will have a look at sound transducer's working, construction, applications and other related terms. So let's get started with What is Sound Transducers.

What are Sound Transducers

• The sound transducer is an instrument that used for the transformation of the sound into the electrical signal and electrical signal into the sound.
• The acoustic waves are defined as the sound that we hear. The frequency range of the sound is from one hertz to several hundred hertz, but the range for the sound that we can hear is twenty to twenty thousand hertz.

• There are the 2 main categories of the sound transducers first one is input transducers and the second one is output transducers.
• Input transducers are that converts sound energy into the electrical energy, an example of these transducers is a microphone that converts our sound into an electrical signal and sends to the loudspeaker.
• The output transducers are that changes the electrical signal into the sound wave, its example is loudspeaker that converts the electrical signal into the sound received by the microphone.
• These transducers have the ability to transform less and higher frequency sound waves lesser frequency waves are known as infrasound wave and larger frequency sound waves are recognised as the ultrasound.

What is Sound

• Sound is the type of energy generated by the vibration produced by beating drum, vibrating tuning fork and the vibration's energy depends on the source that producing these vibrations.
• The frequency of the sound oscillations produced by the drum is less while sound producing from the cymbal (it is a musical device) has larger frequency.
• Like an electrical signal, the sound wave also has velocity, frequency and wavelength.
• The wavelength (?), frequency (f) of the sound rely on the source that produced the waves. But the velocity of the sound depends on the propagation matters like solid, liquid, or gases.
• The mathematical relationship among the frequency, velocity and wavelength is written here.

V= ƒ?

• The wavelength (?) can be defined as the time required for completion of the one sine waveform.
• Frequency (f) is the no of sine waveform in one second, its unit is hertz.
• Velocity (v) is the distance covered by the wave in one second, its unit is m/s^-1

Input Sound Transducer

• The microphone is defined as the input sound transducer because it converts the electrical energy into the sound.
• There are various categories of the mic according to the electric transducers that are working with it.
• Mic also consists of the sound filters circuitries and repeaters circuits that maintain the signal strength after some time.
• The features of the mic are electric and acoustics. The sensitivity of the mice can be defined as the millivolts of the electrical signal produced by the per-unit intensity of the acoustic waves.
• The impedance value of the mic defined the value of the electrical signal at the output if the impedance is larger than the output will also large, impedance is less output will also less.
• Now we discuss the carbon microphone and its working.

Carbon Microphone

• The mic was invented in the world that used in old fashion telephones for conversation is was carbon mic.
• Nowadays these mics have been substituted with the electret mics.
• Carbon mics consist of the piece of the carbon among the diaphragm and back-plate.
• When the pressure is an external sound signal is applied to the carbon piece, then the value of the resistance decreases.
• The sound waves collided with diaphragm cause to decrease the resistance of the carbon piece.
• The output delivered by the carbon mic is according to the sound standard.
• The given below diagram explains the structure of the carbon mic.

Output Sound Transducer

• The use of mic is useless if it is not connected with the output for the conversion of the electrical signal into the sound wave.
• The examples of the output transducers are speaker, bells, that converts an electrical signal into the sound.

• Ear-phones are one of the best output transducers that have used earlier than the mic.
• In previous years the ear-phones were used with Morse key (it is an electrically operated switch used in telegraph) in the transmission of the signal through telegraph.
•  With the discovery of the mic, there were several models of the input and transducers were invented like the telephone.
• Speakers are exits in different physical structure, frequency limits and area. The transducers are also known as pressure modules because they convert an electrical signal into the pressure of the air.
• For high pressure, the speaker comprises a motor that converts an electric signal into the sound waves and diaphragm that pushes adequate air to make the vibrating effect hearable.
• In given below diagram the speaker internal structure is shown.

Now we discuss the practical applications of the sound transducers.

Applications of the Sound Transducers

• These are some important applications of the sound transducers that are described here, with detailed.
• Sound transducers are used in the telecommunications almost all telephone and mobiles consists of these transducers.
• Television and LCDs also consist of the sound transducers.
• Computer, laptops, radio also uses these transducers for the sound.
• In a conference or larger conventions hall, these are used for the propagation of the sound to the people.

It is the detailed article on the sound transducers if you have any question ask in comments thanks for reading. Take care until the next tutorial.

What are Temperature Sensors

Hello friends, I hope you all are doing great. In today’s tutorial, we will have a look at What are Temperature Sensors and their implementation in different engineering projects. The most significant parameter in industries and different engineering project is the temperature that determines the working conditions of the surroundings or instruments. The correct value of the temperature is essential for the implementation of the different accessories and components in engineering projects, circuits, in medical labs, different research laboratories. To measure different values of the temperature different types of sensors are used. Mostly used temperature sensors are thermistors, thermocouples, infrared radiation detector, and RTD. In today's post, we will have a look at uses, working, construction and different parameters related to temperature sensors. So let's get started with what are temperature sensors.

What are Temperature Sensors

• The numerous kinds of temperature sensors are available in the market according to their use like a thermistor, resistance temperature detectors, etc.
• Every sensor has a different working principle like RTD measure temperature by variation in the resistance and thermocouple measure temperature by variation voltage at its terminals.

• As the working principle of every sensor is different but the common factor is that all these sensors calculate temperatures by detecting the alteration in the physical parameters of different substances like resistance, pressure and temperature.
• Each sensor after detecting physical parameters variation converts it into the temperature value and shows on the LCD connected with it.
• Temperature sensors are mostly used in high voltage (HV), alternating current (AC) networks, medical instruments, beverage system to maintain the temperature value for the safety of our different products.
• The thermometer is a frequently used temperature sensor, that computes the value of the temperature of fluids, solids substances, and different gaseous materials.
• I have shared a simulation in Labview for Temperature Sensing, which will help in better understanding.

Units of Temperature

• The most commonly used units for the temperature kelvin, Celsius and Fahrenheit.  Let's discuss them with the detailed.

Celsius

• Celsius is mostly used temperature unit in the different engineering and industrial temperate measurements.
• It is an experimental scale that was formed by ancient development,  that defined its 0 points by comparing it to the freezing point of water and its hundred degrees compared with the point at which water boiled.

 Fahrenheit

• This unit is used by metrologists for the measurement of the surface temperature. But mostly used temperature unit is Celsius so it can be easily converted into the Celsius by using this formula.

C = (F-32)/1.8

Kelvin

• This unit of temperature is used for the different scientific temperature measurements. It can also convert into the Celsius by this formula.

k=C +273

• If you are working on different temperature units and want to converts them easily you must try our temperature converters. That are listed here.
• Kelvin to Fahrenheit Converter
• Kelvin to Celsius Converter
• Fahrenheit to Kelvin Converter
• Fahrenheit to Celsius Converter
• Celsius to Rankine Converter
• Celsius to Kelvin Converter
• Celsius to Fahrenheit Converter
• Kelvin to Fahrenheit Converter
• Kelvin to Rankine Converter
• Rankine to Celsius Converter

Types of Temperature Sensors

• There are numerous categories of temperature sensors according to their working principle, applications and method of temperature measurement.
• We will discuss different and commonly used kinds of temperature sensors some important sensor are listed below. Let's discuss all these senors with the detailed.
  • Thermometer
  • Thermistor
  • Resistor temperature detectors (RTDs)
  • Semiconductor
  • Infrared Sensors

Thermocouples

• The thermocouple is the abbreviation of TC, it is generally used the sensor for temperature measurements.
• The physical structure of these sensors is very strong, less expensive, there is no need for separate power supply for this sensor, it has an internal battery.
• This module comprises of the 2 different metals that are recognised as open and closed. The working phenomena of the metals of the thermocouple follow the thermoelectric effect.
•  For the safety of thermocouple from different environments factors like temperature, moisture, pressure, and gases it is covered with plastic and different ceramic materials sheets.

• The general categories of the thermocouple are K, T, E, S, and B. The J, T, K are generally used thermocouples for temperature computations.

Resistor Temperature Detector

• The temperature's value calculates by the RTD has higher accuracy than other sensors.
• As with the variation of the resistance it measures the temperature, its resistance variation is directly proportional to the temperature values.
• The materials that are used for the construction of this sensor are Pt (platinum), nickel (ni) and copper (Cu).
• It can measure temperature form the minus two seventy celsius to eight fifty celsius.
• In this module, there is no internal power supply it needs external supply for continuous work.
• But the due current power loss occurs at the resistance that can be calculated by this formula.

?T = P x S

• In this equation, the T is temperature P is the power that loss at the resistance.

Thermistors

• A thermistor is a less costly, adjustable and can be used in easiest way. It measures the value of the temperature by the change in the resistance.
• Ther are 2 main types of the thermistors first one is NTC (negative coefficient thermistor) and second is PTC (positive temperature coefficient).
• In the case of the PTC, the temperature and the resistance is directly proportional to one another, with the increase of the temperature there is also an increment in the resistance.
• While in the  NTC the temperature and resistance are inversely proportional to each other.

• These sensors are formed by the oxides of the different metals like the manganese (Mn), nickel (ni).
• This sensor is highly sensitive it detects very minute variations in the temperature.

Thermometers

• To measure the temperature of the different matters like fluids, gaseous materials, and solids the thermometer is used.
• The word thermometer is a mixture of the 2 different words first one thermo that means heat and the second one is the meter that means to measure something.
• The thermometer is similar to a tube that is assembled by the glass and consists of the mercury.
• When the temperature rises the mercury in the tube expands according to the temperature and temperature value can be measured from the scaling on the wall of the tube.
• The value of the temperature can be measured in k (kelvin), F (Fahrenheit), centigrade (C) according to the set scale.

Semiconductor Sensors

• These sensors are available in the different integrated circuitries. Due to such type of designs, these are also recognised as the integrated circuit sensing devices.
•  There several types of these sensors like diode sensor, digital sensors, etc. The work at among the temperature range from fifty-five to plus one fifty celsius.
• The example of these senors are LM35 and AD590.

DS18B20 Temperature Sensor

• DS18B20 work on the single wire protocol and it used to measure temperature from  -55 Celsius to +125 Celsius. It can receive data from nine bit to twelve bits.
• As this sensor uses single wire protocol sensing and receiving data so it can very easily be controlled by the one pin of the microcontroller.
• A single wire is mostly used protocol and every DS18B20 consists of the sixty four-bit serial code that used to regulate more than one components by a single pin of the microcontroller.
• Due to the single wire protocol, the DS18B20 Arduino interfacing is very common to send and receive data and controlling of other senors.

IR (Infrared Radiation) Sensor

• This type of sensor used infrared radiations for the measurements of the temperature.
• There is no need for physical connection for these sensors with the device to that temperature has to find.
• For instance, if someone in the classroom and has an IR sensor than he can easily find the value of the temperature of the chair in the classroom.
•  There are 2 main categories of IR sensor first one is the quantum and the second one is thermal.

It is the detailed article on the temperature sensors I have mentioned each and everything related to the sensors and their types. If you have any question ask in comments. Thanks for reading.

What is Electromagnetism

Hello, fellows, I hope you all are doing great. In today’s tutorial, we will discuss What is Electromagnetism. Initially, electricity and magnetism were known 2 different aspects of physics. This concept was changed by the theory of Maxwell about the electricity and magnetism in 1873, that says the interaction among positive and negative charges behaves like a single force. There were 4 different factors were found by the interactions of the positive and negative charges. In first fact, Maxwell found that the charge either positive or negative attract or repel with a force that is inversely proportional to the square of the distance among charges. In second fact, he said that north and south poles have attraction and repulsion like the charges. In the third fact, he said that current passing through any conductor produces field around it. And in the fourth fact, he described that if we move conductor in a magnetic field there will be an emf induced in that conductor. In today's post, we will relate all these factors and study their effect on the magnetism. So let's get started with the What is Electromagnetism.

What is Electromagnetism

• The branch of the physics that deals with the electromagnetic force and describes the relationship between charges & poles is known as the electromagnetism.
• The emf (electromagnetic force) is caused by the two fields first one is electrical field and the second one is magnetic field.
• As electromagnetism describes the emf so it is also known as the Lorentz force (it describes the collective effect of the electric and magnetic forces on the charges).

• The emf helps to study the internal structure and properties of any substance that exists in our environment.
• The nucleus of different atoms is connected with their valance band electrons by the emf. Due to the emf, different bonds are created among the atom and they create molecules.
• The emf describes the chemical relationship among the electrons of different atoms.
• There are many ways to describe the emf mathematically. In classical electrodynamics (it is a branch of physics that describes the relationship among the charge and current by Newtonian model) the electric field is explained as the electrical potential.
• Faraday's Law describes that the magnetic field is produced by the phenomena of magnetic induction.
• The theoretical explanation of the electromagnetism was given by Einstein in 1905, in the form of the special theory of relativity (this theory describes the relationship between space and time).

Magnetic Field around a Conductor

• When the current is passing through the conductive wire then the field is produced around the conductor in the shape of a circle. The strength of the field is stronger near to the conductor and it becomes weaker as it moves away from the conductor.
• The direction of the magnetic field can be found by the current flowing in the conductor. In the given diagram, you can see the direction of the field and the current.
• The easiest way to find the direction of we take an example of the screw that is inserted in the piece of the paper.
• Then the screw is inserted in the paper its direction of the rotation is clockwise and after the complete insertion of the screw, the only part of the screw out of the paper is its head.
• If the screw has the pozidriv type head configuration, the cross on the head of head will be shown that indicates the direction of the current flowing into the page and away from us.
• Similarly the removal of the screw from the page in counter-clockwise. As current goes from the top of screw towards the bottom of the paper, if we see from the other side of page we see only a point that tells us that current moving towards us.

• After finding the direction of the current we now, know how we can find the direction of the field. For this, we study the right-hand screw action.

Right Hand Screw Action

• The magnetic field shows the availability of the north (N) and the south (S) pole, to show the north and south poles of the current-carrying conductor we use alphabetical letters S and N.
• If we join the arrowheads to without arrowhead points of the N and S, then we get the direction of the magnetic field. It is shown in the given diagram.

Left Hand Rule of Electromagnetism

• There is another famous technique to find the direction of the current and magnetic field, it is the left-hand rule (L.H.R).
• The magnetic field starts from the north pole and ends at the south pole.
• If we grasp the conductor in the left hand in such a way that the figures show the direction of the current then the thumb will tell about the direction of the magnetic field.

• If the current flowing in the conductor changes its direction than we will grasp the conductor from the other side and find the direction of the field.

Example of the Electromagnetism

• The normal loudspeaker that is used television, in different seminars is a suitable example of the electromagnetism.
• To see the working of such devices that follows the phenomena of the electromagnetism, we discuss the given figure.
• For the conversion of the electric signal, the loudspeaker was introduced, in the figure you can see there is a coil is wound on the conductor when a permanent comes to this coil it produces a magnetic field in the coil and it works as an electromagnet.
•  The field of the electromagnet gets repulsion by the field of the permanent magnet. Due to the interaction of these field vibrations are produced, these vibrations amplified by the conical shape assembly and then sound produced in the speaker.
• It is the phenomena that show the working of the electromagnetism in the loudspeaker.
•  The newly formed magnetic field is repelled by the permanent magnetic field resulting in the vibrations. These vibrations are amplified by the cone-like structure causing the sound. This is how speakers work based on electromagnetism.

Applications of the Electromagnetism

• These are some applications of the Electromagnetism.
• This phenomenon is used in electrical motors to develop a magnetic field.
• The working of the CAT scan machine is based on the electromagnetism, this machine is used in the hospital to diagnose the disease.

It is the complete article on the electromagnetism if you have any question ask in comments. Thanks for reading. Take care until the next tutorial.

What is the Future of Optical Engineering?

Hello friends, I hope you all are doing great. In today’s tutorial, we will discuss What is the Future of Optical Engineering? In conjunction with the National Research Council, Scientists have highlighted that the development of optic and photonic technologies is of the utmost importance when it comes to the future of the United States. Consequently, the government is advised to create optic and photonic initiatives that would swiftly advance greater research and development of optic engineering and photonics technology. In today's post, we will have a look at various reasons to pay attention to the future of optics and photonics technologies. So let's get started with What is the Future of Optical Engineering?

Metamaterials

• Meta-materials are engineered to generate properties that are non-existence in natural materials.
• They possess smart properties that can manipulate electronic waves consequently, they are able to offer benefits that are far beyond the possibilities with conventional materials.

• When designed appropriately, metamaterials engineered by optics can impact sound or waves of electromagnetic radiation in such a way that is not visible with bulk materials.
• It is predicted that metamaterials will be of greater use and value in defence applications.

Optical Technologies can Aid Wide-Area Surveillance

• The United States should consider how applicable and well developed optical technologies can aid platforms with the capability of object identification, wider-area surveillance, laser strike, high-bandwidth space communication, improved image resolution, as well as defence against missiles, especially for military and other security interventions.
• Engaging optics engineering and photonics technologies synergistically for a high-altitude platform or laser strike fighter have the ability to result in detailed knowledge regarding an area, information download via communication links, the possibility of striking targets in the fastest possible manner, as well as the possibility of defending against missile attack in a robust manner.
• It is clear that this technology opportunity may become the point of focus for tons of other aspects in optics as well as photonic, typical examples of such areas include free-space communication, high-powered lasers, super-sophisticated camera development, and other areas that the U.S. must take the lead to enable it to maintain national security.
• Even in the world of guns, optic technology is being deployed increasingly. For instance, rifle scopes use optic technologies.
• Scopes offer high magnification and are being used in hunting. They can be used even with both eyes and you’ll have a lot more leeway with where your head or eyes are positioned.

Computing

• Also, the future of more robust computing partly relies on the proper development of optics and photonics technologies.
• This is because the present computing devices, whether it is quantum computers or photonic circuits, have shown us that there are greater possibilities with computing devices and computing itself in the future.
• As the demand for more efficient and faster computing increases, photonics appears to be something to watch out for in the future, and a promising field to venture into by both individuals and governments.

• Already, Google, IBM, and other technology giants have invested massively in this direction.

Imaging

• Through imaging, it is possible to see the wide range of chemical and physical changes occurring in a system.
• Imaging plays an important role particularly in medicine, biology, as well as security issues.
• Using ultrafast imaging, humans have been able to study the ultrafast phenomenon, a typical example is the chemical reactions that take place in short time duration.
• Examples of notable ultrafast imaging systems include STREAK camera, STEAM, and others.
• When it comes to spectroscopy, fingerprinting is the basic concept. Devices engaged for scanning at important locations such as airports are dependent on those spectroscopic systems.
• And, the future has more to offer with imaging when optics and photonics technologies are further explored.

Further Development of Electric Grid for Solar Power

• The United States’ energy stakeholders can seek for ways to strike cost equality across the electric grid of the nation for solar energy/power VS the intended 2020 fossil-powered electric plants.
• Think for a moment, the possibilities with a renewable source of energy that impacts the environment minimally and costs less compared to nonrenewable alternatives.

• While this may appear to be an ambitious goal and a grand challenge, it is doable and possible with extra efforts.

Material Processing

• Material processing and nanofabrication are quite essential, for both basic research as well as industrial applications.
• And, these can get better if optics and photonics are further explored and maximized in the future.
• There has been an advancement in optical data storage and a nine-fold data storage boost has been witnessed via the BluRay disc and similar technologies.
• And, the future holds even much more, as long as stakeholders will take giant strides to further research, develop and deploy optics and applicable technologies.

It is the detailed article on the future of optical engineering if you have any question ask in comments. Thanks for reading.

What is Electromagnet

Hello, fellows, I hope you all are doing great. In today’s tutorial, we will discuss What is Electromagnet. In 1820 physicist of Denmark Christian Orsted first time in the world found that the current produces the magnetic field. After four years of the Christian's theory in 1824 another physicist William Sturgeon who was United Kingdom native work on the findings of the Christian and created the electromagnet. It was created by the piece of iron whose design was like horse-show when the almost eighteen turns of the copper windings were rapped on the iron. The piece of iron was separated from the copper windings by insulation element. After making these arrangements William Sturgeon connect the battery with the terminals of the copper windings, the piece of iron starts to behave like a magnet and attract other iron substance. When he removed the input current from the copper terminals the piece of iron behaves like an insulator. William Sturgeon also practically showed the power of its magnet, his magnet weight was just two hundred gram, but it can attract or lift almost the nine-kilo weight. In today's post we will have a look at electromagnet working, construction, uses and other parameters. So let's get started with the What is Electromagnet.

What is Electromagnet

• The variety of magnet that used current for the generation of the magnetic field is known as the electromagnet.
• These magnets are formed by the wire when it rapped like a loop and current passes through this loop.
• When current passes through the coil magnetic field around the coil produced in a circular shape, its density at the centre of the loop is high and as moves away from the coil it strength decreases.

• Mostly used conductor for the electromagnet is iron because it concentrates the flux produced by the current at the centre and make high power electromagnet.
• The benefit of the electromagnet over the permanent magnet is that we can control its durability and magnetic field by adjusting the current, but in permanent magnet, it is not possible.
• But it also has a drawback that for continue acting it needs a power supply but in the permanent magnet is not needed.
• The electromagnets are frequently used in all classes of electrical machines like motor, generator, speaker and magnetic imaging machine in the hospital.

Lines of Force around an Electromagnet

• When the current passes through the wire it behaves like an electromagnet due to this current magnetic field is produced around the conductor.
• This field has its own north and south poles, it starts from the north pole and end at the south field. The strength of the field is higher at the centre of the loop of the wire and strength decreases as moves away from the centre.
• If we wound more loops of the windings around the iron piece than the strength of the field can be increased.
• From this, we can conclude that the flux of any conductor is directly proportioned the amount of current passing through it and its number of the turns.

m.m.f = I x N

• In this equation, the N is the turns number.

Magnetic Strength of the Electromagnet

• When the electromagnet is created then there are 2 conductors are used first one is wire loop and other is conductor whose around the loop is wound.
• When the current passes through these conductors magnetic field produced in both the conductors and these fields interact with one another and force act on these 2 conductors.
• If the current passing through both the conductors has a similar direction then the conductors will have attraction among them you can see it in the above diagram.
• When the direction of the current is opposite then the field of 2 conductors become strong and both of them repel each other.

• The strength of the field around the conductor depends on the distance from the conductor, it becomes weaker as moves away from the conductor.
• The field strength can be defined by the given formula.
• H = (I x N)/L
  • In this equation, the H is the field intensity.
  • I is the current moving through the conductor.
  • N is no of turns.
  • L is the length of the conductor.

Permeability of Electromagnets

• If we use the core of different conductors instead of the iron than the capacity of the magnet will be different for different core material.
• The changing in the power electromagnet is due to the variation in the density of the flux, different materials produce different flux.
• The more flux lines can pass through the core then the material has larger permeability.
• The formula for the permeability of the material is given as.

u = ur x uo

• In this equation, u is the permeability of the core material.
• ur is the relative permeability of the material.
• uo permeability of the free space.

Advantages of an Electromagnet Over a Permanent Magnet

• These are the main benefits that we get from electromagnet that is not provided by the permanent magnet.

Control of Magnet Strength

• The most important feature of the electromagnet is that the magnetic strength of it can be varied.
• If the current is not passing through the windings of the electromagnt than it works as an insulator when current passes through it becomes a magnet.
• If the current provided in large amperes than there is a larger increment in the strength of the magnet.

• This ability variation in the strength of the electromagnetic makes it useful in industries where the different value of the flux is needed.

Applications of the Electromagnets

• There are many applications of the electromagnets in the industries, home and also in medical equipment. Let's discuss these applications.
• It used in heavy types of machinery used in factories, and smaller electronic instruments like motors.
• It also used for different experiments for the production of the magnetic field.
• If the electromagnet is in the form of the solenoids, it used for the creation of the uniform magnetic field.
• It used in transformer for the production of the flux in the transformer, the core of the transformer behaves like an electromagnet.
• It used in different electrical relays.
• The working of the loudspeaker used in the seminar also depends on the electromagnet.
• Medical resonance imaging machine also used for the production of the magnetic field.
• It also used in hard disks VCR (videocassette recorder), and tape recorder.

It is the detailed article on the electromagnet, I have mentioned each and everything related to the electromagnet. If you have any question ask in comments. Thanks for reading.

What is the Power Diode

Hello friends, I hope you all are doing great. In today’s tutorial, we will discuss What is the Power Diode. The diode is a commonly used module in electrical and electronic engineering. Almost in every electronic device and engineering project diodes are used. It is a PN junction device that has 2 terminals, anode and cathode. The main function of the diode is to convert the alternating current into the direct current, this feature of the diode is called rectification. When it works on the positive cycle of the alternating current its state named as forward biased when it works on the negative cycle of the ac its operating state known as reverse biased. In 1906 the first diode was manufactured by the crystals of the minerals. Power diode is identical to the other semiconductor diodes but has some differences in structure. Normal diodes are used for smaller amplification and switching circuitries but power diode used in higher amplification circuits. In today's post, we will discuss its structure, applications, circuits, and working principle. So let's get started with a what is the power diode.

What is the Power Diode

• Power Diodes are such semiconductor devices used in rectifier circuitries to rectify higher value current.
• This diode has a larger area of PN junction then other diodes, due to this ability is used to rectifier higher value current and voltage, like hundred amperes and thousand kilovolts.

• In normal diodes, both P and N portion have the equivalent doping level, but in power diodes, one side is highly doped and other is lightly doped.
• In the given diagram, you can see that there are three regions first one is highly doped (P+) and 2nd is less doped (N-) regions, both of these are joined with the highly doped (N+).
• The region (N-) is the main factor that makes power diodes useful for higher power circuitries.
• As (N-) is very less doped, due to this power diode also named as the PIN diode. In (PIN) the I for intrinsic.

Half Wave Rectification of Power Diode

• Such circuitry that converts the alternating current into the direct current is called rectifier circuit.
• The rectifier that converts half-wave of the alternating current into the direct current called half-wave rectifier.

Half Wave Rectifier Circuit

• In the given diagram you can see the circuitry of the half-wave rectifier, that has power diode and resistor (R) as output.
• You can see from the figure that the anode of the diode is connected with the positive end of the alternating current source through the transformer that used to step down the voltage and cathode is connected with the negative end. It is the forward-biased form of the diode.
• When the first half waveform of the alternating current passes through the diode, it rectifier this half-cycle to the DC and not work for the negative half of the wave.
• As the output is the resistance, so the current flowing through this resistance will follow Ohm's law, so the current of the resistance will directly proportionate to the applied voltage.
• The voltage across the resistance will be similar to the input supply Vs, for half sinewave voltage across the resistance will be Vs.

• When negative half of the wave reaches the diode it becomes reverse biased, the anode is at negative polarity and cathode at positive polarity. So no current will pass through the diode for negative half and the voltage across the load resistance will be zero.
• The given diagram explains the half-wave rectification.

Half-Wave Rectifier with Capacitor

• After rectification of the alternating current we got the direct current, this DC is not pure dc. There are some ripples present in the output of the rectifier circuitry.
• To reduce these ripples we use a capacitor at the output of the diode to get pure DC.
• There are some defects to use a capacitor for the elimination of the ripples. Because the higher output current will discharge the capacitor very fastly and capacitor stops working, due to this ripple do not remove from the output.
• So the use of capacitor for single-phase rectification is not good for ripples removal, instead, rectify the ac current by the full-wave rectifier.
• Due to this fact, a half-wave rectifier is used for less power consumption applications.

I-V characteristic Curve of Power Diode

• You can see the voltage and current characteristics curve in the given figure.
• We can observe from the graph that the forward-biased current rises with the applied voltage.
• In reverse biased mode, very less leakage current flows, this current does not depend on the revered biased voltage.

• Minority charge carriers are the cause of the leakage current in reverse biased.
• When the value of reversed biased voltage approaches the break-down voltage avalanche break-down (is a fact that can happen in insulators and semiconductors. It is a kind of electrical current multiplication that can concede large amount currents within substances) happens.

Difference between Diode and Power Diode

•  Power diode and normal diodes have some dissimilarities that are described here with the detailed.

Structure:

• The physical structure of the normal PN junction diode has an equal area of P and N sides but in power diode, one region is largely doped and other is less doped.
• The size of the normal diode is small and power diodes are available in a larger size
• Power diodes are mostly constructed by metallic components.

Voltage Ratings:

• Normal semiconductor diodes are used in lesser power circuitries that way there operates at less voltage.
• Power diodes are used in such devices that work on the kilovolts so they have higher ratings.

Current Rating:

• The current ratings of the power diodes are higher than the normal diodes. Power diodes work for such circuitries where hundred amperes current is required.

Temperature:

• As the current and voltage ratings of the power diodes are higher so they have the ability to work at a higher temperature. The normal diode work in low-temperature conditions.

Cost:

• The price of the is high than the normal diodes because power diodes provide an additional feature like high-temperature rating, etc.

So, it is the detailed article on the power diode, if you have any question about it ask in comments. Thanks for reading. Take care until the next tutorial.

What is Full Wave Rectifier

Hello friends, I hope you all are doing great. In today’s tutorial, we will discuss What is Full Wave Rectifier. Transformation of alternating current into the direct current is known as rectification. This conversion can be done by using a single diode or more than one diode. The diode that used for rectification is named as a rectifier. There are 2 main categories of the rectifiers, the first one is the half-wave and the other is full-wave rectifier. In half-wave rectification circuitry, there is only single diode is used to convert alternating current into the direct current. So it can very easily design for rectification. But it has one drawback that it converts one half of the AC wave into direct current. Due to this, there is a higher power loss in this circuitry. This rectifier is also not suitable for such applications where pure direct current is required. For full-wave rectification full-wave rectifier was introduced, that used more than one diode and converts complete AC waveform into the direct current. In today's post, we will have a look at its circuitry, comparison with other rectifiers, uses and some other related terms. So let's get started with a What is Full Wave Rectifier.

What is Full Wave Rectifier

• The full-wave rectifier is such circuitry that transformed full sine waveform of the alternating current into the direct current.
• You can see from the given diagram that the rectifier circuitry transformed the complete alternating waveform into the direct current.
• There are 2 main types of full-wave rectification circuitries, first, one is centred tapped and other is bridge rectifier.
• We discuss both of them with the detailed.

• First, we discuss centre-tapped rectifier circuitry, to study this rectification first we discuss the centre-tapped transformer that is the important component of the centred tapped rectification circuitry.

Center Tapped Transformer

• As we already know that there are 2 main windings of the transformer, the first one is primary and other is secondary.
• If we connect an extra conductor at the center of the secondary winding, then the transformer is known as the centre-tapped.
• This transformer works like a normal transformer, but it provides an additional feature to the transformer.
• That is the voltage coming from the primary side to the secondary, will divide into 2 parts.
• One portion at the secondary is a positive half-wave and other is a negative half-wave, our total output voltage will be the sum of these 2 voltages.

Vt = (V1 + V2)

• This feature of the centred tapped transformer is used in the rectification process.

Center Tapped Full Wave Rectifier

• In this type of the rectification circuitry, there is one centre-tapped transformer and 2 diodes are used for conversion of ac to dc.
•  You can see from the circuitry that the input alternating supply is provided to the primary winding of the transformer and the at the secondary side an extra conductor is connected at the center of the secondary winding.

• The central conductor divides the secondary winding into 2 parts, the first part of the secondary winding is connected with the diode (Dx) and other part connected with the diode (Dy).

• Both of these diodes are also connected with the common resistor RL, that is load resistance it connect with the transformer by the tapped conductor.

Working of the Center Tapped Full-Wave Rectifier

• This rectifier circuitry used a centre-tapped transformer for the conversion of the alternating current into the direct current.
• When the voltage comes at secondary winding from the input windings it distributed into the 2 parts first one is positive and other is negative.

• When the first half of the sine wave comes at the point A of the secondary it is at a positive potential and point B is at a negative potential, and the centre conductor is at 0 voltage level.

• The point A is joined with the anode of the diode Dx and the point B is joined with the cathode of the Dx, this assembly tells that the diode Dx is forward biased condition, and current starts to flow.
• You can see from the circuitry that point B is joined with the anode of the Dy and point A of the secondary windings is connected with the cathode of the Dy.
• So diode Dy has reversed mode in the positive half of the supply and current does not flow through Dy.
• This rectified current than goes to load resistor RL, and then to the secondary winding.
• We can conclude that when positive half of the input comes then there will be zero current through Dy, as it is reversed biasing and Dx is in forward biasing so current passes through this diode.
• When negative half comes at the secondary winding, the Point A is at a negative potential, and point B is at a positive potential.
• The negative point A is joined with the anode of the Dx and positive point B is linked with the cathode of the Dx.
• The diode Dx is in reverse mode so current does not pass through it.
• The positive point B is joined with the anode of the diode Dy and point A is joined with the cathode of the Dy.
• The diode Dy is now forward biasing so current will flow this diode.
• Due to the reverse biasing of the diode Dx, during negative half, the current does not pass through the upper portion of the circuitry and current flows in the lower part.

• So, in case of the negative half of wave-current pass through the Dy that is in the forward-biased state.
• In conclusion, we note that the diode Dx operates in the positive half of the input supply and Dy operates in the negative half of the supply.
• In this way, both parts of the input converted into the dc voltage. The given diagram explains the complete conversion of the input supply.

Full Wave Bridge Rectifier

• It is the other category of the full-wave rectifier circuitry, in this circuitry, there are 4 diodes are connected in bridge-like arrangements, and converts ac input supply into the direct current supply.
• Its main benefit is that there is no need of special centre-tapped transformer for this circuitry, that makes it simple and less costly.
• We can see from the circuitry that 4 diodes are connected in a sequence, and only 2 diodes work for each half of the input supply.
• When there is positive half at the circuitry diode D1 and D2 will operate and negative half diodes D3 and D4 will work.

Positive Half-cycle

• When positive half of the input sinewave comes than diodes D1 and D2 works and positive half of the supply converts into the dc. The given diagram shows the direction of the current.

Negative Half-cycle

• During the negative half of the supply only diodes, D3 and D4 will operate as they are in the forward-biased direction.
• As D1 and D2 work in the positive half and the D3 and D4 works in the negative half, our output will be full-wave dc.

So, it is the detailed article on the full-wave rectifier, if you have any question ask in comments thanks for reading.