The Engineering Projects

Introduction to MAX232

Hello everyone! I hope you all will be fine and having fun. Today, I am going to give you a detailed Introduction to MAX232. It is an Integrated Circuit(IC) embedded in a single chip and acts as a voltage-level converter. MAX 232 is capable of converting 5V TTL Logic level to TIA/EIA-232-F level and can take up to +-30V input. It is normally used for the communication between microcontroller and Laptop/PC.

We can use MAX-232 to convert Transistor Transistor Logic (TTL) voltage level to RS232 and vice versa. RS232 is the method of transferring data using serial communication. MAX 232 is a dual receiver or driver having a capacitive voltage generator to supply RS232 voltage levels from a single supply of 5V. Each receiver converts RS232 inputs to 5V either Transistor Transistor Logic (TTL) or Complementary Metal Oxide Semiconductor (CMOS) levels. Whereas each of the drivers converts TTL or CMOS levels to RS232 levels.

RS232 receiver receives the input from the serial pins of the microcontroller. The receiver also receives the input from RS232's serial port and provides the output to the microcontroller's receiver pin. Four external capacitors are needed for MAX-232 and their values are ranging from 1uF to 22uF. MAX 232 has a lot of applications including battery-powered systems, terminals, modems, computers etc. Further details about MAX-232 will be given later in this tutorial.

Introduction to MAX232

• MAX232 is an integrated circuit (embedded in a single chip) designed by Maxim Integrated Products and acts as a Voltage Logic Converter i.e. it is used to convert TTL Logic level (Microcontrollers' COM Port) into TIA/EIA-232-F level(Laptop Serial Port RS-232) and vice versa.
• It is used for the communication between a Microcontroller and a PC/laptop.
• 9 Pin Serial Port on our Laptop works on RS232 Voltage Logic while our Microcontroller's Serial Port i.e. Tx, RX pins works on TTL Logic.
• Suppose you are working on a PIC16F877A Microcontroller and you want to connect to the Serial Pins of your Laptop, then you have to place MAX232 in between.
• In order to use MAX232, we have to design its small basic circuit in which we have to use 4 capacitors of 1uF, as shown in the below figure.
• It has several different applications e.g. computer, modem, battery-powered systems etc.

1. MAX232 Pinout

• MAX232 Pinout consists of 16 pins in total, the first 6 Pins are used to connect capacitors while the next 8 Pins are for serial port connections and the last two Pins are Power Pins.
• All of the pins are given in chronological order in the table shown below.

MAX232 Pinout
Pin No.	Pin Name	Pin No.	Pin Name
Pin # 1	Capacitor 1+	Pin # 9	R2 Out
Pin # 2	Capacitor 3+	Pin # 10	T2 In
Pin # 3	Capacitor 1-	Pin # 11	T1 In
Pin # 4	Capacitor 2+	Pin # 12	R1 Out
Pin # 5	Capacitor 2-	Pin # 13	R1 In
Pin # 6	Capacitor 4-	Pin # 14	T1 Out
Pin # 7	T2 Out	Pin # 15	GND
Pin # 8	R2 In	Pin # 16	Vcc

• A complete pin diagram along with animation and the real image of MAX 232, is shown in the figure below:

2. MAX232 Pins Functions

• MAX 232 has 16 pins in total as I have told you earlier, some of the pins have common features and some have different ones.
• The functions associated with all of the pins are provided in the table shown below.

3. MAX232 Schematic

• The schematic diagram of a device provides help in understanding its internal functionality.
• I have provided the labeled schematic diagram of MAX 232 as shown in the figure below.

4. MAX232 Packages

• MAX-232 has three different types of packages SOIC (16), PDIP (16) and SOP (16).
• All of the four packages are given in the table shown below.

5. MAX232 Package Dimensions

• The dimensions of all of the MAX 232 packages are shown in the table given below.

 

6. MAX232 Ratings

• The voltage, current and power ratings of any device display its power requirement i.e. how much voltage and current is required for its operation.
• I have provided MAX 232's current, voltage and power ratings in the table shown below.

7. MAX232 Applications

MAX 232 has a lot of real-life applications, a few of which are given below.

• Batter-powered systems.
• Modem.
• Terminals.
• Computers.

So, that is all from the tutorial Introduction to MAX232. I hope you have enjoyed this tutorial. If you have any kind of problem, you can ask me in the comments any time you want to ask, without even feeling any sort of hesitation. I will try my level best to solve your issues in a better way, if possible. Our team is also here to help you. I will explore further ICs in my later tutorial and will surely share all of them with you as well. So, till then, Take Care :)

Introduction to 2N3906

Hello everyone! I hope you all will be absolutely fine and having fun. Today, I am going to share my knowledge about Introduction to 2N3906. It is most common Positive Negative Positive (PNP) Bipolar Junction Transistor (BJT) available in the market now a days. 2N 3906 is specially designed for low power amplification purposes as well as for switching purposes. 2N 3906 is designed for low current, power and for medium voltages. It is capable of operating at moderately high speeds. The range of its collector current is form 10uA to 100mA. Further detail about 2N-3906 will be given later in this tutorial. Note:

• You should download 2n3906 Datasheet by clicking below button:

[dt_default_button link="https://www.sparkfun.com/datasheets/Components/2N3906.pdf" button_alignment="default" animation="fadeIn" size="medium" default_btn_bg_color="" bg_hover_color="" text_color="" text_hover_color="" icon="fa fa-chevron-circle-right" icon_align="left"]Download Datasheet[/dt_default_button]

Introduction to 2N3906

2N3906 is a PNP (Positive Negative Positive) BJT (Bipolar Junction Transistor). The basic purpose of its design is to use it for switching applications and for general purpose amplification. It can operate at low currents, low power and medium voltages. 2N-3906 real life applications include television, home appliances, small load switch transistor having high gain, general purpose amplifiers etc. 2N 3906 is shown in the figure below.

1. 2N3906 Pinout

• 2N-3906 has three pins in total i.e. emitter, base and collector.
• All of the three pins along with their symbol are given in the table shown below.

2. 2N3906 Pins Configuration

• A properly labeled pin diagram of any device results in better standing of the user.
• I have made a completely labeled diagram of 2N-3906 diode along with its animation.
• The complete pinout diagram along with animation, symbolic representation and the real image of 2N 3906 is shown in the figure below.

3. 2N3906 Packages

• 2N 3906 has two different type of packages 2N3906, 2N3906G, 2N3906RL1 and 2N 3906RLRAG.
• Both of theses packages along with their dimensions and part number are given in the table shown below.

4. 2N3906 Schematic

• The schematic diagram of a device helps us to understand its internal functionality.
• I have provided the labeled schematic diagram of 2N3906 as shown in the figure below.

5. 2N3906 Ratings

• The current, voltage and power ratings of any device shows its power requirement i.e. how much amount of current and voltage is sufficient for its operation.
• I have provided 2N-3906 current, power and voltage ratings in the table shown below.

6. 2N3906 Applications

• 2N3906 has a wide range of real life applications, a few of which are given below.
• Small load switch transistor with high gain and low saturation voltage.
• Suitable with television.
• Good for the home appliances.
• General purpose amplifiers.
• Switching applications.

So, thats all from the tutorial Introduction to 2N3906. I hope you enjoyed this amazing tutorial. If you have any kind of problem, you can ask me in comments, any time you want, without even feeling a bit of hesitation. I will try me level best to sort out your issues in a better way, if possible. Our team is also 24/7 available to help you out. I will explore further IC's and diodes in my upcoming tutorial and will share them with you as well for sure. So, till then, Take Care :)

Introduction to TL431

Hello everyone! I hope you all will be absolutely fine and having fun. Today, I am going to explain you about Introduction to TL431. TL 431 are programmable shunt regulator diodes having three terminals. Its a low temperature coefficient diode and can be programmed from reference voltage (Vref) up to 36V when it is attached to 2 external resistors. TL 431 has an impedance of 0.22 ohms and has a current range from 1mA to 100mA. In several different applications zener diodes can be replaced with TL 431 diode due to its efficiency. These applications include power supplies, Operational Amplifier (Op-amp) circuitry and digital voltmeters. TL-431 can either be used as positive or as negative voltage reference because it operates as shunt regulator. TL-431 has low output noise voltage. It is lead (Pb) free, halogen free and RoHS compliant. Further detail about TL 431 e.g. its features, characteristics and pin configuration will be explained later in this tutorial.

Introduction to TL431

TL431 is a shunt regulator diode and hence it can be used as either positive or negative voltage reference. It has a low output noise voltage. TL-431 can be replaced with zener diodes in many applications e.g. digital voltmeters, operational amplifier circuitry, power supplies etc. TL-431 is shown in the figure below.

1. TL431 Pinout

• TL-431 has three pins in total i.e. Reference, Anode and Cathode.
• All of the three pins along with their symbol are given in the table shown below.

2. TL431 Pins Configuration

• A properly labeled pin diagram of any device results in better standing of the user.
• I have made a completely labeled diagram of TL 431 diode along with its animation.
• The complete pinout diagram along with animation, symbolic representation and the real image of TL-431 is shown in the figure below.

3. TL431 Packages

• TL-431 has two different type of packages SOT-23(3) and SOT-23(5).
• Both of theses packages along with their dimensions and part number are given in the table shown below.

4. TL431 Schematic

• The schematic diagram of a device helps us to understand its internal functionality.
• I have provided the labeled schematic diagram of TL 431 as shown in the figure below.

5. TL431 Ratings

• The current, voltage and power ratings of any device shows its power requirement i.e. how much amount of current and voltage is sufficient for its operation.
• I have provided TL-431 current, power and voltage ratings in the table shown below.

6. TL431 Applications

There are a lot of applications associated with TL-431, a few of TL 431 real life applications are given below.

• Voltage monitoring.
• Comparator with integrated reference.
• Adjustable voltage referencing.
• Zener replacing.
• Adjustable current referencing.

So, thats all from the tutorial Introduction to TL431. I hope you enjoyed this amazing tutorial. If you have any kind of problem, you can ask me in comments, any time you want, without even feeling a bit of hesitation. I will try me level best to sort out your issues in a better way, if possible. Our team is also 24/7 available to help you out. I will explore further IC's and diodes in my upcoming tutorial and will share them with you as well for sure. So, till then, Take Care :)

Introduction to 1N4007

Hello everyone! I hope you all will be absolutely fine and having fun. Today, I am going to share my knowledge about Introduction to 1N4007. It is a PN junction diode. Diodes can be made by combining two different types of semiconductor e.g. P and N. PN junction is a junction formed between P and N types of semiconductors. You guys should also have a look at Introduction to 1N4148. 1N 4007 belongs to the series of 1NXXXX devices. Its an American standard numbering system standard used for semiconductor devices. This standard has been adopted globally now. In 1N 4007 the first part 1N indicates single junction semiconductor. 1N indicates 1 junction whereas N indicates the semiconductor diode. 4007 is the specific number to indicate the particular diode. From the electrical point of view, 1N 4007 is compatible with other rectifier diodes. The diodes belonging to 1N400X series can be replaced by this particular diode. They are normally used in Embedded Systems Projects. So, let's get started with 1N4007:

Introduction to 1N4007

1N4007 is a PN junction rectifier diode. These types of diodes allow only the flow of electrical current in one direction only. So, it can be used for the conversion of AC power to DC. 1N 4007 is electrically compatible with other rectifier diodes and can be used instead of any of the diode belonging to 1N400X series. 1N-4007 has different real life applications e.g. free wheeling diodes applications, general purpose rectification of power supplies, inverters, converters etc. You can download 1N4007 Datasheet by clicking below button: Download 1N4007 Datasheet

1. 1N4007 Pinout

• 1N 4007 has two (2) pins in total i.e. anode and cathode respectively.
• There are opposite charges on both of the pins, both the pins along with their name and charges are given in the table shown below.

2. 1N4007 Pins Configuration

• A properly labeled pin diagram of any device results in better standing of the user.
• I have made a completely labeled diagram of 1N-4007 diode along with its animation.
• The complete pinout diagram along with animation, symbolic representation and the real image of 1N 4007 is shown in the figure below.

 

3. 1N4007 Electrical Characteristics

• The electrical characteristics may include reverse voltage, reverse current, forward voltage, forward current etc.
• The different electrical characteristics associated with 1N-4007 is shown in the table given below along with their typical values and System International (SI) units.

4. 1N4007 Thermal Characteristics

• The thermal characteristics may include power dissipation, thermal resistance etc.
• Both of the above characteristics are provided along with their maximum values and SI units, in the table shown below.

5. 1N4007 Features

• Features are basically the speciality of any device which shows that how this device is different from the other devices and how efficient is this!
• The different features associated with 1N 4007 are provided in chronological order, in the table shown below.

6. 1N4007 Applications

1N4007 has a lot of real life applications in Embedded Systems, a few of the major application associated with the particular diode are given below:

• Converters.
• For switching purposes in Embedded systems.
• Free wheeling diodes applications.
• Inverters.
• General purpose rectification of power supplies.
• To avoid reverse current & protect Microcontrollers like Arduino or PIC Microcontroller etc.

6. 1N4007 Proteus Simulation

• I have designed a simple 1N4007 Proteus Simulation in which I have shown both of its states.
• This 1n4007 Proteus Simulation is shown in below figure:

• In the above figure, you can see both states of 1N4007 i.e. Forward Biased and Reverse Biased.
• In Forward Biased state, its allowing the current to pass through it and that's why LED is ON.
• While in the Reverse Biased state, !N4007 is in open state and that's why LED is OFF.

So that is all from the tutorial Introduction to 1N4007. I hope you enjoyed this exciting tutorial. If you face any kind of problem you can ask me in comments anytime you want, without even feeling any sort of hesitation. I will try my level best to solve your issues in a better way, if possible. Our team is also 24/ available to entertain you. I will explore further IC's in my upcoming tutorials and will surely share them with you as well. So, till then take care :)

How to Make Strategies for Essay Writing

Essay writing for the most part request that you exhibit that you have drenched yourself in the course material and that you've done some reasoning all alone; questions not treated finally in class regularly fill in as assignments. Luckily, in the event that you've invested the energy into becoming more acquainted with the material, at that point you've more likely than not started suspecting autonomously. In reacting to assignments, remember the accompanying guidance. Beware of straying. Particularly in the draft stage, "talk" and "examination" can lead you starting with one characteristically fascinating issue then onto the next, at that point another, and after that ... You may end up following a garden of forking ways and lose your direction. To keep this, stop intermittently while drafting your article and rehash the task. Its motivations are probably going to wind up clearer. Consider the task in connection to past and forthcoming assignments. Get some information about the assignment you're embarking to do. Teachers regularly outline assignments to work in multifaceted nature. Knowing where a task falls in this movement can enable you to focus on the particular, crisp difficulties within reach.

How to Make Strategies for Essay Writing

Attempt to approach the written work of a scholarly paper as a bona fide chance to associate with the material, to think in a concentrated and empowering path about the writings you've picked, to express your own particular thoughts. To put it plainly, think about the exposition as an opportunity to move and to add to the ongoing discussion among researchers about the subject under exchange. What's in question is your own particular scholarly improvement. The way toward composing an article for the most part starts with the nearby perusing of content. Obviously, the author's close-to-home experience may at times come into the article, and all papers rely upon the essayist's own particular perceptions and learning. Be that as it may, most articles, particularly scholarly expositions, start with a nearby perusing or something to that effect of content—a depiction, a motion picture, an occasion—and as a rule with that of composing content. When you close read, you watch realities and insights about the content. You may concentrate on a specific entry, or on the content overall. Your point might be to see every striking element of the content, including explanatory elements, basic components, social references; or, your point might be to see just chose elements of the content—for example, resistances and correspondences, or specific authentic references. In any case, mentioning these objective facts constitutes the initial phase during the time spent close perusing. Composing a scholarly paper implies designing a sound arrangement of thoughts into a contention. Since articles are basically direct—they offer one thought at once—they should exhibit their thoughts in the request that sounds good to a peruser. Effectively organizing an article implies taking care of a peruser's rationale. The concentration of such an exposition predicts its structure. It manages the data perusers need to know and the request in which they have to get it. Along these lines, your exposition's structure is fundamentally one of a kind to the primary claim you're making. In spite of the fact that there are rules for developing certain exemplary article sorts (e.g., similar investigation), there is no set recipe. Consider yourself an individual from a jury, tuning in to a legal advisor who is exhibiting an opening contention. You'll need to know soon whether the legal counselor trusts the blamed to be blameworthy or not liable, and how the legal advisor intends to persuade you. Perusers of scholarly expositions resemble jury individuals: before they have perused too far, they need to recognize what the paper contends and in addition how the author intends to make the contention. In the wake of perusing your postulation articulation, the peruser should think, "This paper will attempt to persuade me regarding something. I'm not persuaded yet, but rather I'm intrigued to perceive how I may be."

Improve Assignment Writing Skills in College Life

Hello everyone, I hope you all are doing great. In today's tutorial, we are gonna have a look at How to Improve Assignment Writing Skills in College Life. Not every person adores composing, and I'm not much persuaded that individuals should love composing. It's diligent work. I have an adoration loathe association with composing that has been developed more than quite a long while. I've heard understudies wail over the way that they need to write in their classes, as though composition were something to be dreaded and taken care of like a hot poker. I address these worries each day in the written work classes I educate, and in my own particular head, as I endeavor to sort words on a PC screen. Composing is hard, and nobody ought to ever attempt to persuade you generally. The capacity to take a seat and detail sentences and after that put those sentences into sections and after that put those passages into a reasonable structure is hard. Now is the right time-devouring and debilitating. Be that as it may, notwithstanding the trouble of composing, I solidly trust that anybody can and ought to accomplish a working capability since it's the premise of most correspondence in our reality. You may never cherish or even like composition, however, you ought to at any rate comprehend composing and the procedures that offer ascent to it. In school, there is no more noteworthy aptitude than the capacity to convey. We convey each day. We speak with our teachers face to face and through email; with our companions and relatives however online networking, like Facebook and Twitter; and with ourselves and additionally bigger conceivably obscure groups of onlookers in blog entries and different ways. We convey notwithstanding when we don't believe we're imparting, and the reason for a lot of our correspondence is as yet the composed word. As you travel through your school years, you'll be relied upon to compose to an ever-increasing extent. Here are a few pointers I've discovered valuable and my understudies appear to discover helpful. So, let's get started with How to Improve Assignment Writing Skills in College Life:

Take as much time as needed

• We as a whole have due dates, and we should work to meet them as needs be.
• On the off chance that you have a written work due date, at that point you should set up a calendar to compose a base measure of time each day until the point that you finish your assignment. Try not to wind up overcome with accomplishing certain word limits amid composing sessions.
• Rather, you should simply compose and get something on the page. For a few sessions, you'll get a considerable measure of composing on the page, and for different sessions, you'll get nothing on the page.
• That is exactly how written work functions. It back and forth movements. Some discover the Pomodoro Strategy supportive. It sets a clock and you simply compose until the point that it goes off.
• At that point, you enjoy a reprieve, and you do everything over once more. It's not about composing against a clock but rather more about composing and taking breaks to let your cerebrum.

Quality is constantly superior to the amount

• I realize that numerous understudies need to compose a specific measure of words or pages keeping in mind the end goal to meet task parameters. Simply recollect: The nature of the composition will dependably eclipse the amount of the written work.
• On the off chance that you compose a strong and first-rate paper, it will appear and the educator will take note. It is not necessarily the case that you shouldn't compose for word and page prerequisites, yet that keeping in touch with you do to make those prerequisites ought to dependably be the best thinking of you can do.

Request offer assistance

• Never be reluctant to request help with your written work. As I stated, written work is hard, and it's anything but difficult to lose all sense of direction in an ocean of thoughts and not know where to go next.
• In case you're experiencing difficulty with sentence structure, request offer assistance. In case you're experiencing difficulty with structure, request offer assistance. In case you're experiencing difficulty with content, request offer assistance.
• Your teachers are there to help you. It's a piece of the reason they are educators. Notwithstanding your educators, numerous grounds have composing focuses, where you can get help including point to substance to design.

So, that was all about How to Improve Assignment Writing Skills in College Life. I hope you have enjoyed them.

Introduction to LM358

Hello everyone! I hope you all will be absolutely fine and having fun. Today, I am going to share my knowledge about Introduction to LM358. LM-358 consists of two independent high gain frequency compensated operational amplifier. They are specially designed to operate from a single supply or split supplies over a wide range of voltages. LM-358 have lot of amazing features associated with them. These features include wide supply ranges, low supply current drain, independent of supply voltage, wide unity gain bandwidth, ground includes I common mode input voltage range, low input bias, open loop differential voltage gain, internally frequency compensation etc. LM 358 has a lot real life applications e.g. Operational Amplifier (Op-amp) circuits, transducer amplifiers, DC gain blocks etc. LM-358 is available in as small size as chip. It is most commonly used device due to its cost efficiency. [otw_is sidebar=otw-sidebar-7]

Introduction to LM358

LM 358 consists of two independent high gain frequency compensated Operational Amplifier (Op-amp). These are designed for the operation of this device from single supply or split supplies for a wide range of voltages. LM-358 real life applications include DC gain blocks, active filters, transducer amplifier, Op-amp circuit design etc. Further detail about LM 358 will be given later in this tutorial.

1. LM358 Pinout

• LM 358 has eight (8) pins in total having different individual functions associated with each of them.
• All the pins along with their sequence number are given in the table shown below.

2. LM358 Pins Configuration

• A properly labeled pin diagram of any device results in better standing of the user.
• I have made a completely labeled diagram of LM-358 diode along with its animation.
• The complete pinout diagram along with animation, symbolic representation and the real image of LM 358 is shown in the figure below.

3. LM358 Packages

• LM 358 has four (4) different type of packages DSBGA, PDIP, TO-CAN and SOT-23(5).
• All of theses packages along with their dimensions and part number are given in the table shown below.

4. LM358 Symbolic Representation

• Symbolic for of a device shows its internal circuitry.
• LM 358 symbolic representation is shown in the figure below.

   

5. LM358 Ratings

• The voltage, current and power ratings of any device shows its power requirement i.e. how much amount of current and voltage is sufficient for its operation.
• I have provided LM-358 current, power and voltage ratings in the table shown below.

6. LM358 Advantages

• LM-358 has several different advantages, a few of which are given below.
• There is no need of dual supply.
• Compatibility with all forms of logic.
• Two Op-amps, compensated internally.
• Power drain suitable for battery operation.
• Direct sensing near ground.

7. LM358 Applications

• LM 358 has a wide range of real life applications, few of the major applications are given below.
• DC gain blocks.
• General signal conditioning.
• Transducer amplifiers.
• General signal amplification.
• Active filters.
• Operational amplifier circuits.
• Current loop transmitters for 4 to 20mA.

7. LM358 Proteus Simulation

• I have also designed a Proteus Simulation of LM358 which will give you better idea of its working.
• In this simulation, I have designed a small automatic LED ON OFF circuit depending on LDR value.
• The image is shown in below figure:

• You can see in above figure that I have attached the LDR at input pins while the LED is attached at the output pin of LM358.
• Now when LDR is dark, then LED will remain OFF but when LDR will come in Light then LED will also turn ON.
• The variable resistor is used for sensitivity purposes.
• In the below image I have shown its ON state:

• You can see in above figure that now LED is ON because LDR is in LIGHT.
• You can download this LM358 Proteus Simulation by clicking the below button:

Download Proteus Simulation

So, that is all from the tutorial Introduction to LM358. I hope you enjoyed this tutorial. If you have any kind of problem, you can ask me in comments, any time you want, without even feeling a bit of hesitation. I will try my level best to sort out your problems in a better way, if possible. Our team is also 24/7 here to help you out. I will explore further IC's and diodes in my upcoming tutorial and will surely share all of them with you as well. So, till then, Take Care :)

How to Choose the Best Cheap Android Tablet within Your Budget

Tablets are great devices for active and busy people. It’s a convenient device to carry with you and if you’re a business person, it can make working on the road a lot more pleasant than simply using your smartphone. However, buying a tablet isn’t necessarily easy, as you have so many options available. It can be even trickier if you are working with a specific budget – you want to make sure you get the best tablet money can buy. They help you out, here are some tips on how to choose the best Android tablet within your budget.

Set your budget

You must start your tablet hunt by setting yourself a budget. It’s important you look at the bank account and think carefully how much you are able to and willing to spend on the new device. In terms of the pricing, there are different things that affect the price tag. The screen size, configuration, battery and brand are just some of the things that can increase or decrease the price. However, as a rule of thumb, it’s good to know that a cheap tablet costs anything from $100 to $150, while a higher-performing tablet will generally cost around $300 to $500. Anything beyond that will be a super performing tablet – often almost like a laptop in terms of performance.

Pick your chosen screen size and screen resolution

So, let’s start by looking at the some of the elements you need to consider and which will also impact the price. One of the first things you need to think is the screen size. Tablets can be as small as 6-inch or as big as 12-inch. The bigger your device’s screen, the more it will cost. If you are using the tablet just to browse the Internet, chatting with friends, reading books and so on, a 7 to 8-inch tablet will be sufficient. If you are looking to spend a lot of time working or playing games on the tablet, you probably want something above 10-inch. You should also consider the screen resolution and what you need from it. Again, if you are working on the tablet and you work with images, you definitely require as good resolution as you can get. In general, a 1280x800 pixel is a decent resolution but if you just need the tablet for occasional use, you can find cheaper models with fewer pixels.

Think about the performance and tablet configuration

Configuration refers to the hardware on the tablet and this is important in terms of performance and price. If you want something cheap, then Octa-Core or Mediatek processor with around 1 to 2GB of RAM will probably be the best configuration for you. Anything beyond these will cost a bit more but will also help your tablet perform better. In terms of storage, an 8GB storage is cheap but it can be rather laggy. You can improve it with an external SD card. If you don’t want to buy an SD card, you should have at least 16GB of internal storage.

Pick the extra functions you need

Of course, tablets come with additional features. The two main features that will impact the price are the camera and the speakers. You need to carefully consider how important these functions are to you. If you think you won’t take many photos with your tablet, then you shouldn’t waste money on a good camera. If you are going to listen to a lot of music on your tablet or watch movies on it, you want to get a tablet with good quality speakers. The good news is that most of today’s tablets actually come with two built-in speakers, which enhances the quality of sound. Unless you are buying a super cheap tablet, the sound quality should be sufficient without you having to pay a lot of extra.

Consider the different brands

Perhaps the biggest influencing factor in terms of the price is the brand. You can now find thousands of tablet models from hundreds of brands and some of them cost a lot more than others. The top manufacturers with the priciest tablets come from brands like Samsung, Lenovo, Acer and ASUS. If you want to find something cheaper but with a decent configuration, you might want to consider opting for a Chinese brand. Chinese tablets are becoming much better in term of configuration and performance with affordable prices. Chuwi or Tablet Express are some of the cheaper Chinese models to keep in mind.

Look for discounts

Now, just because a tablet has a specific price tag attached to it, it doesn’t mean it necessarily will cost you this much. Indeed, retailers are always offering discounts and these can help you cut down the price further. So, before you buy a tablet always check if you can find a higher performing model for the same price with the help of discount codes. When it comes to finding the best cheap Android tablet, these tips will help you shop within your budget.

Introduction to LM339

Hello everyone! I hope you all will be absolutely fine and having fun. Today, I am going to share my knowledge about Introduction to LM339. LM339 belongs to the family of devices having 4 independent voltage comparators. Each comparator is designed in such a way that it is capable of operating from a single power source over a wide range of power supplies. It can also operate for split power supplies. There is a unique characteristic of comparators, Input Common-Mode Voltage Range (I_CMR) includes a ground even when it is operating from a single power supply voltage.

Basically, LM339 is a comparator IC having four built-in comparators. The basic purpose of a comparator is to rotate the signal between analog and digital domains. At its input terminal, it compares the two different input voltages applied, gives digital output and indicates the larger input applied at the input terminal.

Introduction to LM339

LM 339 is a comparator IC having 4 builtin comparators. A comparator rotates a signal between digital and analog domain. First of all, it compares the 2 different inputs applied at the input terminal and then gives the output in digital form in order to indicate which of the input applied has a larger amplitude. It has a lot of real life applications e.g. basic comparator, driving CMOS, driving TTL, low frequency op-amp, Transducer amplifier etc. Further detail about the particular IC will be given later in this tutorial.

1. LM339 Pinout

• LM 339 has fourteen (14) pins in total including four inverting input pins, four non inverting pins, four output pins, voltage and ground pin.
• All of the pins along with their sequence number are shown in the table given below.

2. LM339 Pins Configuration

• The properly labeled LM 339 pin configuration diagram is shown in the figure below, for the better understanding of the reader (specially the students).

3. LM339 Packages

• LM 339 has different packages including LM-339DG, LM-339NG etc.
• A few of the packages are given in the table shown below.

4. LM339 Features

• There are several different features associated with LM 339.
• A few of the major features including low supply current, low input bias current, low input offset current, low output saturation voltage etc. are taken into account.
• The major features along with their values and System International (SI) units are provided in the table shown below.

5. LM339 Ratings

• The current, voltage and power rating associated with LM 339 are given along with their typical values and SI units, in the table shown below.

LM339 Applications

There is a wide range of applications associated with LM 339 comparator IC. A few of the major applications along with their designed circuits are explained below.

Basic comparator

• The circuit designed for Basic Comparator is shown in the figure below:

You can see from the above figure that the basic comparator consists of LM 339 with two different reference input voltages and a15K resistor.

Driving CMOS

• The circuit designed for Driving CMOS is shown in the figure below.

• You can see from the above figure that the driving CMOS consists of LM 339 with two different reference input voltages and a 100K resistor.

Low frequency op-amp

• The circuit designed for Low Frequency Op-amp is shown in the figure below.

• You can see from the above figure that the Low Frequency Op-amp consists of LM 339 with two different reference input voltages, a 15K resistor and a 100K resistor having voltage gain of around 100.

Transducer Amplifier

• The circuit designed for Transducer Amplifier is shown in the figure below.

• You can see from the above figure that the Transducer amplifier consists of LM 339 with two different reference input voltages, a 3K resistor, a 20M resistor and two 10K resistors.

Zero crossing detector

• The circuit designed for Zero Crossing Detector is shown in the figure below.

• You can see from the above figure that the Transducer amplifier consists of LM 339 with two different reference input voltages, a 10K resistor, a 20M resistor, three 5.1K resistor, two 100K resistors and 1N4148 diode.
• There are few other applications associated with LM 339 and are given below.
• Limit comparator.
• Crystal controlled oscillator.
• Negative reference comparator.
• Driving TTL

So, that is all from the tutorial Introduction to LM339. I hope you enjoyed this tutorial. If you are facing any kind of problem, you can freely ask me in comments anytime you want without even feeling any sort of hesitation. I will try my level best to solve your issues in a proper way, if possible. Moreover, our team is also available 24/7 for your guidance. I will explore different IC’s and transistors in my upcoming tutorial and will surely share them with you as well. So, till then Take Care :)

Introduction to LM324

Hello everyone! I hope you all will be absolutely fine and having fun. Today, I am going to elaborate about the Introduction to LM324. It is an Operational Amplifier (Op-amp) consists of four channels. Its a low cost device having true differential inputs.For single supply applications LM 324 are superior to the other operational amplifiers. LM-324 is capable of operating at the minimum voltage up to 3V and at the high voltage levels up to 32V. One of the major advantage of LM-324 is that common mode input range includes negative supply which eliminates the need of external biasing. Negative power supply voltage is also included in output voltage range. This device is lead (Pb) free, halogen free and RoHS compliant. It consists of four amplifiers per package. LM 324 real life applications include conventional amplifier circuits, transducer amplifier, DC gain blocks etc. Further detail about LM324 e.g. its pins configuration, thermal and electrical characteristics, its features and applications will be explained in detail later in this tutorial. [otw_is sidebar=otw-sidebar-7]

Introduction to LM324

LM324 is an operational amplifier consists of four channels. It is most commonly used amplifier due to its low cost factor. It consists of four amplifiers per package and is superior to other amplifiers for single supply applications. Negative power supply included in common mode input and output range eliminates the need of external biasing. It has several different applications e.g. DC gain blocks, transducer amplifiers, conventional amplifier circuits etc. LM 324 is shown in the figure given below.

1. LM324 Pinout

• We must know the description of each pin before using any of the devices for its appropriate use.
• LM-324 has fourteen (14) pins in total having different individual functions associated with them.
• All of the fourteen pins along with their names are given in chronological order in the table shown below.

2. LM324 Configurations

• Each of the pin should be clearly labeled, if someone is going to use any device for the first time or after a long time.
• Properly labeled pinout diagram of any device results in better understanding of its functionality.
• So, I have made a completely labeled diagram for LM 324 pinout, you can see it in the figure shown below.

3. LM324 Packages

• LM-324 has four different type of packages having different individual dimensions.
• The packages include TSSOP, SOIC, CDIP and PDIP.
• ALl of the above packages are given along with their dimensions, in the table shown below.

4. LM324 Ratings

• The current, power and voltage ratings of any device indicates its power requirements i.e. the amount of current and voltage at which a particular device starts its operation properly.
• The current, voltage and power ratings of LM-324 are provided in the table shown below.

5. LM324 Schematic Diagram

• The schematic diagram of a device helps to understand its internal functionality.
• I have provided a schematic diagram of LM-324 as shown in the figure below.

• From the above figure, you can see that LM 324 consists of four amplifiers per package.
• The inputs of these amplifiers are connected to the pin number 2, 3, 5, 6, 9, 10, 12 and 13  respectively.
• The output of these amplifiers are connected to 1, 7, 8 and 14 pins.

6. LM324 Applications

There are different LM324 real life applications, a few of which are given below.

• Conventional amplifier circuits
• Transducer amplifier.
• DC gain blocks.

6. LM324 Proteus Simulation

• You should have a look at Automatic Street Light Project in Proteus, I have used LM324 in this simulation.
• I have also designed an LM324 Proteus Simulation so that you can get better idea of its working.
• I have designed a simple circuit in which LED goes ON or OFF automatically depending on LDR value.
• It's OFF state is shown in below figure:

• You can see in above figure that I have attached LDR at inputs while the LED at its output.
• Variable resistor is used for controlling the sensitivity of LDR sensor.
• It's ON state is shown in below figure:

• You can download this LM324 Proteus Simulation by clicking the below button:

Download Proteus Simulation

So that is all from the tutorial Introduction to LM324. I hope you enjoyed this exciting tutorial. If you face any sort of issues you can ask me in comments anytime you want, without even feeling any kind of hesitation. I will try my level best to solve your issues in a better way, if possible. Our team is also 24/ here to entertain you. I will explore further IC's in my upcoming tutorials and will surely shre them with you as well. So, till then take care :)