The Engineering Projects

15+ BEST Video Compressor in 2021

If you are a full-time video editor, then you will always need a set of tools that will help you to edit and create your videos. Video compressors are one of them. There are too many different kinds of such tools available on the internet. That is why it can get confusing to choose the best video compressor. If you don't know how to compress a video, then it is essential that you use a good-quality compressor. It will help you to save space, send files faster and also maintain the same quality and resolution. To help you choose the best video compressor in the market, we have brought you a list of all the best products that we have found out. These are some of the software that will genuinely help you to compress a video on both Windows and Mac OS. So, without further ado, let's check out the top software.

1. VideoProc Ad

At first, you would think this to be only a basic video compressor app, but as you explore the app, you will find that there are several other features that make it a full editing software. You can process your videos like a pro with this. The software has more than 180 million downloads and can compress videos up to 90% of their original quality. You can even cut, crop, or edit different parts of it.

2. Handbrake

One of the most reliable and efficient video compressors in the market, Handbrake is available for both Windows and Mac OS. This is an open-source program that allows everyone to use the software for free. Handbrake can edit your videos to at least 90% of the original size and still maintain the original quality without a miss. It has MP3, Flac, AC3, AAC / HE-AAC or Vorbis support.

3. Final Cut Pro X Compressor

Final Cut Pro is the favorite video compressor for Mac users. It is a widely used default editing tool in Apple devices. The powerful features of the software are of the industry standard. It can easily help you compress even the highest quality videos without affecting the overall quality. You can choose to compress formats like 4K and 360°.

4. Movavi Video Converter

A well-known and easy-to-use video compressor, Movavi offers its users lightning-fast conversion without any significant loss in the video quality. You can now compress more than one file together using the Batch Processing feature. Just drag and drop the video in the particular area in the software and start the compression. It can quickly compress 4K quality videos also.

5. Wondershare UniConverter

Software that can be used on both Mac and Windows, Wondershare has a host of video editing tools that include this wonderful compressor as well. You also get some basic editing tools along with the compressor, and you can render them at super quick speed without loss of quality. It can support all the known standard formats.

6. InVideo Editor

One of the best video editing tools on this list, InVideo can help you do a lot of things with their software. The editor is packed with professional features and options, which helps you enjoy editing your videos in different formats. InVideo can process super-fast rendering speeds, and that saves you a lot of time. Maintain the same quality when compressing the videos and share the video directly from the software easily.

7. Any Video Converter

AVC is a tool that is specifically made to compress videos only. It can allow you to choose your own preferred parameters for compressing the videos and launch them. It also helps you to download videos from YouTube, Netflix, and many other popular websites. The software comes with NVIDIA NVENC accelerated encoding for a flawless 4K video downloading experience.

8. Filmora Video Converter

One of the most powerful video compressors on the list, this software is developed by Filmora, and it supports both Windows and Mac OS. You can access twelve different formats to compress the videos. This is more than enough for most of the editors in the market these days. There are twenty output formats present on it as well. The simple and intuitive UI makes it easy for anyone who is trying to compress a video.

9. BlazeMedia Pro

The software may look a bit old school and dated, but its performance is better than a lot of modern-day software. Yes! BalzeMedia Pro is one of the best video compressors available in 2021. Convert videos of any quality and video format within mins. The software does what it promises to do, and you can easily convert a wide range of videos without losing the bit of the original quality.

10. YouCompress

For anyone who is looking to convert videos that support AVI, MP4, and MOV format, then this is the best software for them. This product is also available online. That means you don't have to download and install it. You can access it directly from the website. This online compressor is best for those who are looking to resize different videos at a faster rate. The platform is very friendly, and you can learn more about it easily with the help of the tutorials that are provided.

11. Panda Video Compressor

This software is available for both desktop and mobile devices. Panda Video Compressor can compress your videos quickly without any hassles. You can choose to resize them and not affect the quality at all. The tool also allows you to share your favorite videos via email and on different social platforms directly from the software. This excellent compressor also supports a plethora of video formats.

12. Adobe Premiere Pro

Last but barely least, this is one of the most popular software used by newbies as well as the media industry. This software's tools and plug-ins will give you a feel-good mind state when you learn it. It is fun to use and highly professional at the same time. You will adore its interface once you start using it and can add an edge to your content!

 The Bottom Line

Video compressors are one of the most useful and important tools that editors need. All of them can help you compress your video in the best possible manner. In addition, they can help you save space, share your work easily, and even resize your videos without any hassles. So, grab one of them and start compressing your videos from now!

Lipo Battery Library for Proteus

Hello everyone, I hope you all are fine. In today's tutorial, we are going to share a new Lipo Battery Library for Proteus. Proteus has a 12V battery module in it but they are quite simple in looks, so we have simply designed a stylish looking lipo battery, I hope you will find it useful for a better project presentation. This Proteus Library has two Lipo Batteries in it, one is of 3.7V and the second one is of 11.1V, these are normally available Lipo models in the market. Although, you can change the voltage level of these batteries from their properties panel. Let's first have a look at the brief introduction of Lipo Baterry:

What is Lipo Battery???

• Lipo is an abbreviation of lithium polymer battery, designed using lithium-ion technology and uses polymer electrodes.
• Lipo Battery provides high power in a small package and thus used in autonomous project i.e. quadcopter, robotic vehicles etc.

Lipo Battery Library for Proteus

• First of all, we need to download the Proteus Library zip file of the Lipo battery, by clicking the below button:

Lipo Battery Library for Proteus

• In this zip file, you will find a folder named Proteus Library Files.
• In this folder, we have two files:
  • LipoBatteryTEP.LIB
  • LipoBatteryTEP.IDX
• Place these two files in the library folder of your Proteus software

Note:

• If you are facing problems with adding a library in Proteus 7 or 8 Professional, then have a look at How to add a new Library in Proteus 8 Professional.

• After adding these Library files, open your Proteus software or restart it, if it's already open.
• In the components section, make a search for Lipo Battery and you will get results, as shown in the below figure:

• As you can see, now we have two Lipo batteries in the components database, so let's place them in the Proteus workspace.

• If everything's fine, then you will get results as shown in the below figure:

• As you can see in the above figure, we have two Lipo Batteries:
  • One is operating at 11.1V.
  • Second one is operating at 3.7V
• We can change the voltage level from the properties panel, so double click on the Lipo battery to open its properties, as shown in the below figure:

• As you can see in the above figure, we have 11.1V written in the Voltage text box, so here you can change the voltage level of these batteries.

• Now, let's design a simple simulation to understand how it works:

• So, I have simply attached a voltmeter with both of these lipo batteries, as shown in the above figure.
• Now, let's run our simulation and if everything's fine, you will get results as shown in the below figure:

• If you are working on a 12V project, then simply change the voltage level from the properties panel and use it in your project.

So, that was all for today. I hope you have enjoyed today's tutorial. If you have any questions, please ask in comments and we will help you out. Thanks for reading.. Take care. Bye !!! :)

Soil Moisture Sensor Library for Proteus V2.0

Hello friends, I hope you all are doing fine. In today's tutorial, I am going to share a new Soil Moisture Sensor Library for Proteus V2.0. You should also have a look at its previous version i.e. Soil Moisture Sensor Library for Proteus V1.0. If you have worked on the previous version, it has only one soil moisture sensor in it, while in this library, we have added three soil moisture sensors.

First, we will have a brief introduction of the Soil Moisture sensor, then we will download the zip file containing Proteus Library files of Soil Moisture Sensor and finally, we will design a small simulation using these new sensors. So, let's get started:

Where To Buy?
No.	Components	Distributor	Link To Buy
1	Arduino Uno	Amazon	Buy Now

What is Soil Moisture Sensor?

• Soil Moisture sensor is an embedded sensor, used to measure the moisture level of the soil.
• It is normally used in agricultural automation projects, i.e. controlling the water flow based on the moisture level of the soil.
• Soil Moisture sensors are available with both analog and digital outputs.
• They normally have a potentiometer embedded in them, for controlling the sensitivity of the sensor.

Before downloading the sensor's library file, let's first have a look at what's new in version 2.

Difference b/w V1.0 & V2.0

• We received many complaints about the big size of the Soil Moisture sensor(V1.0), so we have reduced their sizes in this new library(V2.0).

• The first version contains only 1 soil moisture sensor, while in V2.0 we have added three soil moisture sensors.
• The output of V1.0 was quite smooth, while in V2.0 we have made the output a bit fluctuating to make it more realistic.

Now, let's download the Proteus Library zip file for this sensor and simulate it in Proteus:

Soil Moisture Sensor Library for Proteus V2.0

• First, we need to download the Proteus Library zip file, by clicking the below button:

Soil Moisture Sensor Library for Proteus V2.0

• After downloading the zip file, extract it and open the folder named Proteus Library Files.
• You will find three files in this folder, named as:
  • SoilMoistureSensor2TEP.IDX
  • SoilMoistureSensor2TEP.LIB
  • SoilMoistureSensor2TEP.HEX
• Place these files in the library folder of your Proteus software.

Note:

• If you are facing problems with adding a library in Proteus 7 or 8 Professional, then have a look at How to add a new Library in Proteus 8 Professional.

• Now, open Proteus ISIS, and if you are already working on it, then restart it.
• In the components library, make a search for Soil Moisture Sensor, and you will get results as shown in the below figure:

• Let's place these three soil moisture sensors in the Proteus workspace:

• Quite pretty, aren't they? :)

Now let's design a small simulation, to have a look at its working:

Proteus Simulation of Soil Moisture Sensor

• As you can see in the above figure, each of these sensors has 4 pins in total, which are:
  1. Vcc: We need to provide +5V here.
  2. GND: We need to connect it to Ground.
  3. A0: It's the analog output pin, its value will increase as the moisture level of the soil will increase.
  4. TestPin: The voltage level of TestPin will decide the moisture level of the soil.

Why Test Pin is used?

• As it's a simulation, so we can't actually probe the sensor in real soil, so we are using this TestPin for testing purposes.
• The value of Test Pin can vary from 0 to 5V, so as the value of this Test Pin will increase, the sensor will consider the moisture level of the soil in increasing and thus its output will also increase. In simple words:
  • If TestPin is HIGH: Soil has maximum moisture level.
  • If TestPin is LOW: Soil is completely dry.
• We will place a potentiometer at TestPin to provide variable voltage for testing.

Adding Hex File to the sensor

• We have placed three library files of soil moisture sensor in the Library folder of Proteus, and if you have noticed, one of them is the .hex file.
• In order to operate this sensor, we need to add that hex file to our sensor.
• So, double click on the Soil Moisture sensor to open its Properties Panel.
• In the properties panel, we have a section named "Program File", here upload the hex file which we have downloaded, as shown in the below figure:

• After adding the hex file, click Ok to close the properties panel.
• Now, design a small simulation, as shown in the below figure:(I have added this simulation in the Proteus Library zip file)

• I have added the hex file in both of these soil moisture sensors.
• Now, let's run the Proteus Simulation and have a look at the output:

• As we change the value of the potentiometer(attached to Test Pin), the output of the sensor will change accordingly.

So, that was all for today. I hope this library will help embedded students in their engineering projects. If you have any suggestions/comments, please use the below comment form. Thanks for reading. Take care. Bye !!! :)

The consolidation of JLCPCB & EasyEDA

The core reason for Co-branding is to better serve the coming future of electronic products and the tech world. JLCPCB is known as a multilayer PCBs integrated circuits manufacturer, which owns 5 independent factories and an order-friendly global PCB company. EasyEDA is known as the world's first web-based EDA tool and cloud-based EDAtool. EasyEDA’s tech stability and maturity and JLCPCB’s great production scale are the strongest assets for the consolidation. The deep link of two integrates technical resources, computing resources, and operating resources for future challenges of mobile phone hotspots, free WIFI, and 5G, etc. The EasyEDA tech sector’s like-mindedness is a software tool to serve engineers, not driven by software tools. So Cloud-based features allow electronic engineers to browse the PCB design everywhere, during the nap of a business trip, when the nap of a vacation journey, when the way back home, anywhere, anytime to access your files easily. JLCPCB constantly pursues growth and progress. In the current technology world, people need to think big, then make big. Creativity and practice are what JLCPCB keeps doing. The supply of low-cost and high-quality PCBs allows JLCPCB to gain 800000+customers worldwide, so they assembled to face challenges together. EDA used to be the most profitable of the IC industry, and the practitioners are also the most knowledgeable and intelligent group. However,  with the low threshold for entrepreneurship, more and more people are joining the competition and finally, it becomes seriously competitive, but this urges EDA practitioners' skills to be refined. After decades of competition and annexation, a few EDA companies have now become dominant. The combination of EasyEDA and JLCPCB conforms to the trend, brings healthy competition to the industry, and provides stable financial and human resources for R&D. However, in-depth technology R&D can't be achieved via any quickness. Therefore, JLCPCB & EasyEDA has a consensus: they have to stably develop technology,  long and profoundly when some stakeholders pursue rapid tech development. This also makes EasyEDA and JLCPCB choose to be more closely integrated.

Division & Cooperation in the Technological World

The upgraded network technology foundation, the upgraded demands. Global division and collaboration is already the trend of product completion, which are carried out on the basis of internet-based products. internet-based products refer to tangible products or intangible services that use the Internet as a tool to meet customer’s needs and help to achieve commercial value. We can see Internet-based product logic from the two. Free and easy to use is the value of EasyEDA. JLCPCB's winning points are low price and convenience. Their multilayer PCBs manufacturing service accepts 1-6 layer boards which only cost $2(starting price). When customers need a powerful PCB layout and simulation capability with massive libraries of schematic components in order to push forward PCB mass production; When customers need comprehensive system solutions, which provides manufacturing processes Technology,  hi-tech intellectual property licenses, emerging technology knowledge, etc they are more appreciated. The consolidation of JLCPCB and EasyEDA become valuable. The final electronic products come from the global labor division, when the American engineer has finished his Gerber design on EasyEDA, one clicks to upload his file on the JLCPCB page, then waits for the local DHL staff to deliver the PCB to his door. Task division of design, production, and delivery links all. When the production link between countries no longer occurs after the final production but occurs at every stage of product research and development, manufacturing, marketing, and operation management, the whole production networks have shared the good result of high-tech industries, like the links between clients and JLCPCB & EasyEDA. Back to the PCB industry, there are three major characteristics of PCB and EDA industries, including industrial innovation, high demand for professionals, and prosperous M&A activities. M & A activity is the key to expanding market share and deepening the level of technology. Take Synopsys as an example. It was established in 1986. According to industry statistics, since the late 1990s, it has successively acquired more than 40 small EDA companies and silicon intellectual property companies. Now of course M&A activities get more common for this industry.1+1 may be greater than 2, and the same is true for customer groups and integrated technical resources. Now JLCPCB has 800,000 + customers, with EasyEDA tens of thousands of users every day, the combination of the two can bring convenience to clients, and can also make the development of the two profitable, tap non-overlapping customers, and experience new of each other's services. This is a manifestation of the progress of software and hardware cooperation and a symbol of the division and cooperation of technical products.

Cloud-based EDA, unlimited effort

EasyEDA was established in June 2010, 60 years after the first EDA. It is based on the web, with schematic capture, spice circuit simulation, and PCB layout tool for electronics engineers. The developers of EasyEDA, Dillon He, set out to create a PCB design software tool that provides comprehensive data and collaboration tools to help engineers and designers move from idea to product more easily and quickly, so EasyEDA was born. EDA is a process of transforming hardware principles into real objects,  it is more like a carrier to show the mindset. It is divided into two major branches: microelectronics and hardware boards. EasyEDA serves hardboard circuits, which are used for electronic watches, mobile phones, switchboards in the computer room, they all contain hardware boards. It insisted on cloud-based tools from the start and never changed. The concept of EasyEDA cannot be accepted by some people, who don’t trust their designs on the alien servers, or so-kind web-based services. The founder, Mr. He said: “ Perhaps EasyEDA needs to wait, wait for free WIFI widespread, wait for the speedy Internet, wait for everyone's copyright awareness, wait for everyone to accept the new model, and wait for the change of user habits.”  For the distrust of cloud file storage security, EasyEDA has promised if the tool is shut down they would open-source their code and provide adequate time to download files. “Therefore we can only serve those who have the same value.” He also pointed out. Engineers are always so cool! Mr. He sometimes is tender. “A loyal EasyEDA user expressed that he is a loyal user of cloud products. He will give priority to products that can be cloud-based. He firmly believes that the comprehensive advantages of cloud products are greater than the desktop stand-alone version. He trusts JLC’s professional team to protect my data. However, he needs a sense of security, and he needs to know that one day he will be able to open his design locally. Maybe this day will never come for me, but you'd better provide this function, although I may not use it."Therefore he decided to provide the function. When downloading the client-side, offline version and the online version offered. Project data for the offline version will not be sent to the EasyEDA’s server and kept by themselves; for the online version, while the files are saved to the EasyEDA server, it will also be saved to a personal computer with double insurance. The offline version is expected to serve just a few users among tens of thousands of users each day. They made such an endeavor to meet the needs of a sense of security.

Higher quality PCB, higher trust

JLCPCB is a global company that owns 5 independent factories, not in the shared factory. Since PCB manufacturing activities become more open, sharing, collaborative, and flexible, shared factories are used by some PCB companies who don’t have enough manufacturing capabilities or just play a middle role between PCB customers and PCB factories. It means when you order a PCB from a company that uses a shared factory, the PCB is produced in an unknown fab. Of course, we have to admit this new mode meets some consumer's needs when people don’t care where and how the PCB is produced. However, the board's reliability is very important to the end products, especially for electronic hardware products. The trust builds on the product quality when you upload your Gerber file on JLCPCB. They produce it in their own 5 big plants. Quality is the life of PCB, choosing trusted merchants and trusted merchants' factories is vital for the end product. How to perfectly cater to the needs of consumers and ensure the quality of service while also continuously improving, so that more people around the world can benefit? They keep an open and accepting attitude, listen to the needs of consumers: besides the PCB prototype, improving SMT services is also becoming more and more important for PCB consumers. JLCPCB just published the news of the JLCPCB SMT Road Map, they will support 80% of components assemble in LCSC in 2021, now is just 20%; they will support double sides assembly, now is just single side; they will support more quantity SMT assembly in the near future. 2021, is also a great year for JLCPCB SMT. The news gains a lot of good feedback on Twitter. Actually many people know JLCPCBfrom some famous makers, like GreatScott, AlexGyver, HacksmithIndustries, when they are using JLCPCB, what keeps you waiting?

Connect with the world

JLCPCB&EasyEDA is in line with international standards for in-depth research and development for software technology and hardware technology. The entire process needs electronic engineers’ participation, suggestions, modification, and re-research. They believe technology serves engineers or creators. Therefore, JLCPCB&EasyEDA reorganizes and integrates resources and starts anew to make greater progress, striving to meet the habits and preferences of more users, non-stop unique experience, Only then can their existence be valuable. JLCPCB&EasyEDA trust in long and stable joint effort can achieve in-depth technology, then you can believe in them. It is so-called Design, Make, Then trust”. JLCB&EasyEDA co&branding event. Get coupon & Join JLC&EDA Group

How to Increase EF Core Performance for Saving Multiple Entities?

Hello friends, I hope you all are doing great. In today's tutorial, we will have a look at How to Increase EF Core Performance for Saving Multiple Entities? EF Core works well for simple CRUD operations but for saving multiple entities EF Core provides poor performance. So, today we will use a third-party EF Core extension named "Z.EntityFramework.Extensions.EFCore", designed by ZZZ Projects, which will increase the EF Core performance significantly. I will be using a BulkSaveChanges Method of this library which is specifically designed for saving bulk data in an SQL database.

ZZZ Projects is a trusted company and has designed numerous .NET libraries, a few having downloads in millions. So, you can completely trust this extension library.

• Here's a video for this tutorial, which will give you a practical demonstration of this project i.e. How to add this Library to your project and how to use this extension method BulkSaveChanges:

Before starting with the actual process, let's first have a look at What is EF Core?

What is EF Core?

EF Core is an Object Relational Mapper(ORM) and is used as a bridge between the ASP.Net Core application & its database. Thanks to EF Core, now there's no need to write complex SQL queries for database-related operations, instead, developers can easily perform all database CRUD operations in C# language(using EF Core). Although designed by Microsoft, but EF Core is a separate module and we can add it to our .NET application from the Nuget library.

Low Performance of EF Core

• ORM(i.e. EF Core) provides a simple instructions-set for database CRUD operations and proves very friendly to developers, but it has few drawbacks as well.
• One of the main disadvantages of EF Core is its low performance, which not only slows down your application but also increases the database interactions(cloud providers may charge extra).
• Moreover, as the number of data(you want to save in the database) increases, the EF Core performance decreases.

EF Core Performance for multiple Entities

• In a professional .NET application development, there come many scenarios where the developer needs to save multiple entities in the database i.e. user notifications, real-time messages etc.
• When multiple entities are saved using EF Core, it doesn't save them in a single SQL session.
• Instead, it takes multiple round-trips to the database, which increases the overall time for the data-saving process.

So, now let's have a look at How to increase the EF Core Performance for multiple entities by using BulkSaveChanges(provided by Z Extension), instead of SaveChanges(provided by EF Core):

What is BulkSaveChanges Method?

• BulkSaveChanges is a simple function, automatically generated by EF Core Extension Library and is used for saving multiple entities in the database.
• BulkSaveChanges increases the performance of EF Core by 3 to 4 times and its performance is exponential to a number of entities.
• First of all, you need to download this project designed in ASP.NET Core:

Download Asp.Net Core Project

• Open it in Visual Studio and first run the Migration commands for setting up the SQL database.

How to add EF Core Extension Library

• If you check the NuGet packages in the above project, you will find these four packages installed in it, shown in the below figure:

• You must be familiar with the first 3 NuGet packages, as they are used to add EF Core libraries in the .Net project.
• The fourth one is the NuGet package of EF Core extension Library, designed by ZZZ Projects.
• If you click on the Browse tab and make a search for "Z.EntityFramework", you will find results, as shown in the below figure:

• These NuGet packages are designed by ZZZ Projects, and from this list, I have installed the second one, named: Z.EntityFrameworkCore.Extensions.EFCore.

Methods offered by Z Extension Library

• After adding this NuGet package of ZZZ Projects, its methods will become readily available under the instance of DbContext class.
• I am going to discuss BulkSaveChanges Method only(in today's lecture) but it has a wide range of methods for improving the performance of DBContext class, used in different scenarios, depending on requirements.
• Here's a list of few other methods, offered by this EF Core Extension Library:

BulkSaveChanges Method to improve performance of EF Core

Now, let's have a look at the implementation of the BulkSaveChanges Method in our Asp.Net Core Application:

• In the Models folder, open the SubjectRepository.cs file and here you will find two methods, named:
  • Add1() Method: It will use the default SaveChanges() Method of EFCore.
  • Add2() Method: It will be using the new BulkSaveChanges() Method of EF Core Extension Library.
• Both of these methods are shown in the below figure:

• As you can see in the above code, it's too easy to use the BulkSaveChanges() method, as it's called on the same instance of DBContext class, on which I have called the default SaveChanges() method.
• Moreover, I have placed a stopwatch function around these methods to calculate the time taken by them, for saving 5000 entities in the database.

Now, let's save 5000 entities using these two methods, and look at the results:

SaveChanges vs BulkSaveChanges

•  I have tested these methods three times each and created a comparison table.
• In each of these testing trials, I have saved 5000 entities in the underlying SQL database.
• Here's the result of the comparison, SaveChanges vs BulkSaveChanges: (all these readings are in milliseconds)

• As you can see in the above comparison table, the BulkSaveChanges method is 3 to 4 times faster than the SaveChanges method.

For a practical demonstration of this project, watch the above video, where I have completely demonstrate How to add this Z extension Library to your project and how to use the BulkSaveChanges method to improve the performance of EF Core. So, that was all today, if you have any questions, please ask in the comments. Thanks for reading!!! :)

What is Stoichiometry? How it helps in Balancing Reactions?

The topic we are going to discuss today can be crowned as the most celebrated concepts in the field of Chemistry, the most celebrated amongst the chemists yet most hated amongst the students due to its complexity, who loves balancing chemical equations? Definitely no one! So cutting it short we are here to discuss " Stoichiometry ". The very first time I encountered this word years ago it felt like a tongue twister to me, let's learn to pronounce it first, stoichiometry is pronounced as "stoy- key-om-Et-tree", you would definitely learn to pronounce it well by the end of this discussion, keep trying! So, let's get started with Stoichiometry:

What is Stoichiometry?

• In a chemical reaction, different reactants react together in different quantities and generate products.
• For example, in the below chemical reaction, Hydrogen & Oxygen are reactants and they are producing water as a result of an exothermic reaction:

• As you can see in the above reaction,
  • Reactants: 2 atoms of hydrogen + 2 atoms of oxygen
  • Product: 2 atoms of hydrogen + 1 atom of oxygen.
• So clearly, there's a molecular difference between reactants & products and according to the Law of Conversation of mass:

"Mass of a system(chemical reaction) remains constant over time, if no energy enters or leaves the system."

• In simple words, the molecular mass of reactants must be equal to that of products and if it's not the case, then such reactions are called UnBalanced Reactions.

UnBalanced Reactions

• Unbalanced Reactions are also called Skeletal Reactions and provide information only about the type of ingredients & Products used in a chemical reaction.
• It doesn't give any information about the quantity of the reactants or the products.

Balanced Reactions

• A chemical reaction, which strictly follows the law of conservation of mass i.e. the molecular mass of reactants must be equal to that of products is called Balanced Reaction.
• For balancing a chemical reaction, numerical coefficients are used and are placed on the left side of the entity.
• Now let's balance the above unbalaced reaction to understand it completely, balanced reaction is shown in the below figure:

• As you can see in the above figure, I have used Numerical values called Coefficients to balance the equation.
• Now, in this balanced reaction, we have an equal number of atoms in reactants and products, i.e.:
  • Reactants: 4 atoms of Hydrogen + 2 atoms of Oxygen.
  • Products: 4 atoms of Hydrogen + 2 atoms of Oxygen.
• These coefficients are simply multiplied by the number of atoms.
• This technique of balancing a chemical reaction is called Stoichiometry.

Advantages of Balancing a Chemical Reaction

• As we have seen in the above water reaction, once we have balanced the reaction, it got clear that we need 2 moles(molecules) of Hydrogen and 1 mole(molecule) of oxygen, if we want to produce 2 moles(molecules) of water.
• So, with the help of a balanced equation, a scientist can easily calculate the number of ingredients for producing a certain amount of product.

Now let's have a look at a proper definition of Stoichiometry:

Stoichiometry Definition

• Stoichiometry is a set of mathematical techniques, used for determining a quantitative relationship between reactants and products in a chemical equation/reaction.
• The term stoichiometry has been derived from the two Greek words, the first one is “Stiochos” which means elements and the second one is “metry” which means measuring, so the word collectively means "Measuring Elements".
• It was coined by Jeremias Benjamin in 1972, in the first volume of his book Richter's Stoichiometry also known as the Art of Measuring the Chemical Elements.

Stoichiometric Coefficients:

• Coefficients are the whole numbers, written in front of the elemental symbols in the equation, indicating the number of moles or the number of molecules.
• If there is no coefficient in front of a symbol, then 1 is assumed to be the coefficient.

Now let's have a look at why do we need Stoichiometry in chemistry:

Why do we need stoichiometry?

• We need stoichiometry for two reasons, mentioned as follows:
  1. For balancing a chemical reaction.
  2. For conversions i.e. grams to moles & moles to grams.

Let's understand both of them in detail:

Balancing a Chemical Reaction

• There are no fixed rules for balancing a chemical reaction, it depends more on your analytical skills, but there are few tricks.
• While balancing a chemical reaction, always balance individual elements one by one, as in a water reaction, we first balanced oxygen and then hydrogen.
• First balance that element, which has the least occurrences in the reaction, as for water oxygen atoms appeared 3 times, while hydrogen atoms were 4 times.
• Try to balance single elements first, as balancing elements from a compound is bit difficult.
• But again as I said earlier, these are few tricks to ease the process, but it mainly depends on analytical skills and practice.
• Your equation is said to be balanced when it will have an equal number of atoms on both sides i.e. obeying the Law of conservation of mass.
• So, let's balance few reactions to understand How it works:

Stoichiometry Example1: Water Reaction

• I have already shown both unbalanced & balanced equations of water but now let's have a look at the steps taken to balance it.
• So, we have an unbalanced equation as shown in the below figure:

• As you can see in the above figure, we have an unbalanced equation, so we need to analyze, which element can be balanced easily.
• Clearly, we are using 2 atoms of oxygen in reactants but the product contains only 1 atom.
• So, we need to multiply the product by 2 so that, we could balance oxygen items, as shown in the below figure:

• We have balanced oxygen items in the above equation, but now in reactants, we are using 2 hydrogen atoms but in the product, we have 4 atoms.
• So, in order to balance hydrogen atoms, we need to multiply hydrogen reactant with 2 as well, as shown in the below figure:

• Now we have an equal number of atoms(of both hydrogen & oxygen) in reactants and product and we can say, we have a balanced equation now.
• So, if we want to produce 2 moles of water(36g molar mass), then we have to combine 2 moles of hydrogen(4g) and 1 mole of oxygen(32g).

Now let's have a look at another example:

Stoichiometry Example 2: Propane Reacts with Oxygen

• Now, lets have a look at another reaction, where Propane reacts with oxygen and generates carbon dioxide and water, as shown in the below figure:

• As you can see in the Stoichiometry example, I have followed the above mentioned tricks.
• First of all, the point to notice is I have solved all elements individually, first Carbon, then Hydrogen and finally Oxygen.
• Moreover, I have Carbon first because it has appeared in two entities and was quite easy to balance.
• And in the last step, we got our balanced equation having an equal number of atoms on both sides of the reaction.

Stoichiometry Example 3

• Here's a quick example to show you that in complex equations, we may have to re-evaluate our coefficients, as shown in the below figure:

I hope you guys have completely understood the concept of balancing a chemical reaction. Always remember, whenever you are going to solve a stoichiometric numerical problem, you have to balance the chemical equation first, otherwise you won't be able to solve the problem correctly. It is a necessary evil! Don't skip it, okay? Now let's have a look at How to perform conversions from one unit to another using balanced equations.

Unit Conversions using Stoichiometry

In the previous section, we have seen How to balance a chemical reaction and now we will discuss How to make unit conversions of chemical elements using these balanced equations.

• Normally, the quantity of a chemical substance is measured using two different units, which are:
  1. Moles.
  2. Grams.

Moles Definition

• Mole is the SI unit for quantity/amount of a chemical substance and 1 mole of any substance contains 6.02 × 10²³(Avogadro's no) atoms of that chemical substance.
• The term molecules and moles are used interchangeably, and if you ask me, mole is just the short form of the molecule.
• So generally, the number of molecules of a chemical substance, used in a chemical reaction is denoted by the unit called Mole(denoted as mol).
• As you can see in the below water reaction, 2 moles of Hydrogen are reacting with 1 mole of oxygen and producing 2 moles of water.

Now let's have a look at the grams definition:

Grams Defnition

• When chemical substances are measured using their molar/molecular mass, then the Grams unit is used, denoted by g.
• Molar mass can be defined as the mass of one mole of a substance in grams.”
• Again let's understand it with water reaction:

• So, in the above reaction, I have displayed both moles and grams, so if you want to use the grams unit then we can say that:
• 4g of hydrogen is reacting with 32g of Oxygen and producing 36g of water.
• You must have noticed that we have an equal number of mass(in grams) on both sides of the equation as the balanced equation must obey Law of conservation of mass.

Moles Vs Grams

The following table shows the difference between Moles & Grams:

ESP32 Module Features and Technical Specs
No.	Mole(mol)	Grams(g)
1	The Mole unit is used to count the number of entities(chemical substances) used.	Gram unit is used to measure the amount(molar mass) of chemical substance i.e. how much quantity is used?
2	Moles are normally integers	mass in grams could be a fraction.
3	Total moles of reactants may or may not be equal to that of products in a balanced chemical reaction.	The total mass(in grams) of reactants must be equal to that of products in a balanced chemical reaction.
4	Mole unit is used in theory mostly.

Molar Ratio

• As we have seen, Stoichiometry is the knowledge of balancing the chemical equations.
• These chemical reactions are actually giving us the ratio between reactants and products.
• Let's understand this ratio with water reaction:

• So, in water reaction, we have a ratio of 2:1:2 between Hydrogen, oxygen and water respectively.
• As this ratio is between moles of the reactants and products, thus it's called the Molar ratio.

Now let's have a look at How to make conversions between moles and grams using the molar ratio.

Conversions between Grams & Moles

There are four types of conversions that can be performed between these two units in stoichiometry, which are:

• Moles-Moles Conversion
• Grams-Moles Conversion
• Grams-Grams Conversion
• Moles-Grams Conversion

Grams-Grams Conversion is the most widely used one. Now let's solve few Stoichiometry problems to understand these conversions. These real-life problems will also help you understand the importance of stoichiometry calculations and how they are used in chemistry.

Stoichiometry Problems

In stoichiometry we come across a number of numerical problems that ask for the following calculations;

• Finding out the limiting reactant of a reaction.
• Calculating the actual yield of a reaction.
• Theoretical yield of a chemical reaction.
• Finding out the empirical formula of a compound after combustion analysis.

All these calculations are stoichiometric in nature as it involves the above-mentioned conversions. In this discussion, we are going to pick one problem from each of the above topics and I would help you solve and understand them in the best possible way. Let's get started!

Find Limiting Reactant using Stoichiometry

Limiting reactant can be defined as:

• A limiting reactant(also called a limiting agent) is a chemical substance/element, that takes part in a chemical reaction in a limited amount & controls the amount of product produced.

Many times, we are asked to identify the limiting reactant in a numerical problem, following is one of such problems:

Stoichiometry Problem Statement:

During a chemical reaction 3.2 moles of N₂ react with 5.4 moles of H₂ to form NH₃, how much amount of NH₃ can be formed in the process? Which one is the limiting reactant? How of the excess reactant would be left over after the consumption of the limiting reactant? Solution:

Step 1: Write the Balanced Equation of the chemical reaction:

• We will start by writing the balanced chemical equation for the above reaction

N₂ (g) + 3H₂ (g) ? 2NH₃ (g)

Step 2: Determine the Limiting Reactant b/w N₂ & H₂

• We will now determine the amount of N₂ consumed by H₂.
• So, from above balanced equation, we have the molar ratio of 1:3:2 between nitrogen, hydrogen and ammonia respectively.
• So, we can find the limiting reactant as shown in the below figure:

• As, we can see in the above calculations that 9.6 mol of H₂ Is required to fully consume 3.2 mol of N₂, but in the statement, we are only provided with 5.4 mol of H₂, so clearly H₂ is our limiting reactant here.
• Now, we will be calculating the total amount of N₂ consumed with the provided 5.4 mol of H₂, so:

3 mol of H₂ consumes = 1 mol of N₂

1 mol of H₂ consumes = 1/3 mol of N₂

5.4 mol of H₂ consumes = 5.4 × 1 / 3 mol of N₂ = 1.8 mol of N₂.

Step 3: Determine maximum product produced by the limiting reactant

• Next, we need to find the amount of product, that we can produce using these reactants.
• As we already know that H₂ is our limiting reactant, so simply we need to apply the molar ratio between H₂ and NH₃.
• For this, we can do the following calculation:

3 mol of H₂ produces = 2 mol of NH₃

1 mol of H₂ will produce = 2/3 mol of NH₃

5.4 mol of H₂ will produce = 5.4 × 2 / 3 mol of NH₃ = 3.6 mol of NH₃

• So, 3.6 mol of ammonia is the maximum amount, that can be produced with the number of reactants given in the problem statement.

Step 4: Determine the amount of excess reactant

• If you want to determine the amount of N₂ still left after the reaction, there is a simple formula for that i.e. number of moles given - number of moles used = amount of excess reactant left
• 3.2 mol - 1.8 mol = 1.4 mol of N₂ are left after the consumption of the limiting reactant.

Step 5: Conclude the results

The conclusion can be written as;

• H₂ is the limiting reactant
• N₂ is the excess reactant, so only 1.8 mol will be consumed and 1.4 mol will be left.
• 3.6 mol of NH₃ can be produced with the reaction of 5.4 mol of H₂ and 1.8 mol of N₂.

Calculating Actual Yield and Theoretical Yield

First, let's have a look at their definitions:

Yield Definition

• It is the amount of product formed during a chemical reaction.

Theoretical Yield

• The amount of stoichiometric product calculated on paper without any practical experimentation, we can also regard it as an estimated product.

Experimental/Actual Yield

• The actual amount of product formed during a chemical reaction on practical grounds.

Practical yield can be equal or less than the theoretical yield, most of the students ask why and how it happens? Here is a simple answer:

• We don't have ideal conditions of temperature and pressure in the industry
• There is a loss of reactants in the process of transferring, mixing etc.
• Mechanical losses are always there which can never be ignored.
• An impure reactant can add to the agony of the procurement team as well

Percentage yield

• Percentage yield is the percentage ratio of actual/experiment yield to the theoretical yield.
• It can be mathematically written as:

% yield = actual yield / theoretical yield × 100

Why we use this concept? You must be thinking why we need this simple percentage in our lives, let me tell you why! It is extremely crucial to industries either chemical or pharmaceutical, they calculate the amount of profit or loss through this method. You might have faced the discontinuation of your favorite soap or shampoo or bubble gum in your life, it was all due to the decrease in the %age yield of the product that was not good enough to continue because when a product has a lesser profit margin there is no other choice than to discontinue it! Production is highly dependent on this concept regarding it to be a success factor for a product to rule the market. It’s time for a numerical problem to help you better understand the concept!

PROBLEM STATEMENT

42 grams of hydrogen reacts with nitrogen to form 120g of ammonia, determine the percentage yield of the product formed during the reaction.

Step1: Write the balanced chemical equation

N₂ (g) + 3H₂ (g) ? 2NH₃ (g)

 

Step 2: Convert grams into moles

• As the quantities are given in grams, so we need to convert them to moles first. So,

Moles of H₂= mass in grams / molar mass

= 42/2 = 21 moles

 

Step 3: Calculate NH3 Theoretical Yield

• Next, we need to calculate the moles of the product by comparing it with the reactant using a balanced chemical equation.
• So, the molar ratio between H₂ & NH₃ is 3:2, so:

3 mol of H₂ produces = 2 mol of NH₃

1 mol of H₂ will produce = 2/3 mol of NH₃

21 mol of H₂ will produce = 21 x 2/3 mol of NH₃ = 14 mol of NH₃

Convert moles into grams because the actual yield has been given in grams and units of two quantities to be compared must be the same.

Mass in gram of NH₃= number of mole × molar mass = 14 × 17= 238g

Step 4: Calculate Percentage Yield

• Now, calculate the percentage yield by putting the values into the given formula:

Actual yield of NH3 = 120 grams

% yield = actual yield ÷ theoretical yield × 100 

= 120 / 238 × 100

            = 50.5% is the calculated percentage yield of NH3

This is how we calculate the %age yield of a chemical reaction.

Calculating Empirical formula with Stoichiometry

As we are well aware of combustion, how and why it happens, it's time to solve the stoichiometric problems related to combustion analysis in which students are mostly asked to find empirical formulas. The empirical formula is different from the molecular formula, don't confuse both with each other here's why! “Empirical formula can be defined as the simplest ratio of atoms or elements present in a compound” Example: The molecular formula of benzene is C6H6 meanwhile the empirical formula is CH. Features of Empirical Formula:

• Contains the most simplified ratio of the moles of elements making a compound
• It is simply a ratio, not an exact number or amount of atoms or molecules making a compound.
• Determined by weight percentages by converting them into grams.
• It is not commonly used in experimental schemes as compared to molecular formulas.

Features of Molecular Formula:

• It is the actual number of atoms or molecules forming the compound
• We calculate it after the calculation of the empirical formula
• It is a by-weight representation of every constituent particle making the molecule.
• It is commonly used in chemical reactions and stoichiometric calculations
• The molecular formula is always a multiple of the empirical formula; we can calculate empirical formula by a simple calculation at glance.

NUMERICAL PROBLEM

• A compound is composed of 52.14% of carbon, 34.7% oxygen and 13.13% of hydrogen by mass. Given that the molar mass of the compound is 138.204 g/ mole, Calculate The empirical formula and molecular formula.

Step 1: Convert percentages into grams

• Carbon = 52.14g
• Hydrogen =13.13g
• Oxygen=34.7g

Step 2: Convert grams into moles

• For carbon:

no of moles = mass in grams/ molar mass

52.14 = mole / 12 g per mole = 4.34 moles

• For hydrogen:

no of moles = mass in grams / molar mass = 13.13 / 1 = 13.02 moles

• For oxygen:

no of moles = mass in grams / molar mass = 34.73/ 16 = 2.17 moles

 

Step 3: Dividing with a common denominator

• Divide the number of moles of all 3 atoms with the lowest number of moles obtained:

Number of moles for Carbon =4.34 moles/ 2.17= 2

Number of moles of hydrogen= 13.13/2.17=6

Number of moles of oxygen = 2.17/2.17 =1

Step 4: Setup your Empirical formula

• C₂H₆O is our empirical formula

Step 5: Calculate the molecular formula

• Add up and calculate the atomic mass of each element

2C + 6 H + O

= 2×12 + 6× 1.008 + 16 = 46.08

Molar mass/mass in grams = 138/46 = 3

Multiply 3 with the empirical formula subscripts

So the molecular formula is C₆H₁₈O₃

  This is how we calculate the empirical formula, summarizing it;

• Convert %age into grams
• Then convert grams into moles afterward
• Divide the moles with the least amount of moles obtained
• The digit obtained is the empirical formula!

Summing up, stoichiometry is hard to understand at first but practice can make it easier for you, have patience and don't fret, learn the formulas by heart and efficiently rearrange them to extract the desired entity which is missing! See you soon with the next topic, good day!

Home Security System using Arduino UNO in Proteus

Hello friends, I hope you all are doing well. In today's tutorial, we are going to design a Home Security System using Arduino UNO in Proteus software. It's the most commonly designed engineering project, especially in electrical, electronics and mechatronics engineering. Normally engineering students design it as a semester project during their engineering course.

So, today we will design a home security system from scratch in Proteus software. I have given the complete project below to download but I would suggest you to design it on your own so that you could understand it better. So, let's get started:

Where To Buy?
No.	Components	Distributor	Link To Buy
1	Battery 12V	Amazon	Buy Now
2	Buzzer	Amazon	Buy Now
3	LM7805	Amazon	Buy Now
4	OptoCoupler	Amazon	Buy Now
5	Relay	Amazon	Buy Now
6	Keypad 4x3	Amazon	Buy Now
7	LCD 20x4	Amazon	Buy Now
8	Flame Sensors	Amazon	Buy Now
9	MQ-2	Amazon	Buy Now
10	PIR Sensor	Amazon	Buy Now
11	Arduino Uno	Amazon	Buy Now

Home Security System: Project Description

• Before going into the detail, let's first download the complete Proteus Simulation with Arduino Code, by clicking the below button:

Home Security System using Arduino UNO in Proteus

Let me first give you a detailed project description i.e. what we actually want to design? We want to build a Home Security Project, which should follow these security protocols:

• Fire alarm: It should be able to detect the fire and sound an alarm to alert everyone at home.
• Smoke alarm: It should detect the gas(smoke) and turn on the alarm(if detected).

The above-mentioned security protocols will be followed 24/7. Moreover, there will be two security modes in the project, named:

• Secure Mode.
• Normal Mode.

Let's have a look at both of these modes, one by one:

1. Secure Mode

• This mode should be selected, when owners want to completely secure their home i.e. they are leaving home or while sleeping at night.
• If the Secure Mode is selected, the project should follow the following security protocols:
  • Intruder Detection Alarm: It should detect the presence of any human being in the occupied premises.
  • Windows Security Alarm: If someone tries to break through the windows, the project should sound an alarm.
  • Door Security Alarm: If any intruder tries to break through the main door, it should again sound the alarm to alert everyone.

2. Normal Mode

• This mode should be selected, when owners are at home and just want to take the basic security measures.
• In this mode, only the Fire Alarm & Gas Alarm will work, while all other alarms will remain on standby.

Other Features

• There should be an LCD, to display values of all parameters.
• It should have a buzzer to generate an alarm, in case of emergency.
• There should a Push Button to make switches between these security modes.

Here's the final simulation, which we are going to design in today's lecture:

So, these are our requirements, which we want to achieve in this Home Security Project. Now let's have a look at the components selected for this project:

Home Security System: Components Selected

Now let's have a look at the list of components, which I have selected for this Home Security Project. I will also briefly explain the purpose of using each component.

1. Arduino UNO

• As clearly it's an Embedded Systems Project, so first of all we need to select a Microcontroller for our project.
• As I have mentioned earlier, we will use the Arduino UNO Microcontroller board for designing this project.
• Arduino UNO will act as the brain of the project and will control all sensors and modules.

2. Flame Sensor:

• A flame sensor is used to detects the presence of fire.
• The sensor basically consists of a photo-diode that detects the Infrared rays that emit from the fire. When it detects a fire, its output goes HIGH.

3. Gas Sensor (MQ-6)

• MQ-6 Gas Sensor is used to detect the concentration of gases in the environment.
• The sensor produces a potential difference proportional to the concentration of the particular gases.
• The type of gas that it detects depends upon the material used in the sensor.
• There are many gas sensors available in the market i.e. MQ-2, MQ-3, MQ-4 etc.
• These sensors are available as ready-made modules for easy interfacing with the microcontroller.

4. PIR Sensor(HC-SR501)

• HC-SR501 PIR sensor is used to detect any human being(intruder) in the Secure Mode.
• It detects the IR radiations from the human movement & generates a pulse on its output.
• The time period of the pulse could be varied by using the potentiometer on the sensor.

5. Vibration sensor(SW-420)

• The SW-420 vibration sensor is used to detect any forced entry through windows.
• In Secure Mode, if someone tries to open the window, the sensor will detect vibrations and will send a HIGH signal to the microcontroller.

6. Infrared Sensor

• An infrared sensor will be placed at the door and someone tried to enter through that door, the sensor will detect it.
• It consists of an IR transmitter and a photo-diode that are placed close to each other.
• If any object movement occurs in front of the sensor, the IR rays hit the object and return back with a particular angle called incident angle.
• This pulls the comparator output to ground or logic LOW.

7. LCD 20x4

• LCD 20x4 will be used for displaying the values of all these sensors.
• It will also display useful information i.e. which mode is selected.

8. Buzzer

• A small 5V Buzzer is used to sound the alarm.

9. LM7805

• LM7805 is a voltage regulator and is used to convert voltage from 12V to 5V.
• Power sources(i.e. battery, adapter etc.) available are normally 12V, as it has become a standard.
• Moreover, many components also operate at 12V like a buzzer or DC motor.
• While microcontrollers and sensors work on 5V, so in Embedded projects, it's quite necessary to design a voltage regulator from 12V to 5V and in some cases 3.3V.
• I normally prefer LM7805 for converting voltage from 12V to 5V.

10. Resistances(1kohm)

• We need to use a few resistances of 1kohm.

11. Small LED

• We will also use a small LED for power indication.

12. Capacitors(100uF)

• We will also use few capacitors of 100uF, as it removes any noise/ripples.

So, these are the components, we are going to use for designing Home Security System. Now let's get started with designing the Proteus Simulation:

Proteus Simulation of Home Security System

As I have told you earlier, I am going to use Proteus software for designing this project. Proteus is an excellent simulation tool, where we will not only design the circuit of this project but will also test its output. I always design my programming algorithms on simulations as working on real hardware is too time-consuming. You should remove all your programming bugs in simulation and once confirmed then design your project in real hardware. So, let's start:

Install Proteus Libraries

• Arduino boards & sensors' modules are not available in the Proteus components list.
• So, first of all, we need to install these Proteus libraries:
  • Arduino Library for Proteus.
  • Flame Sensor Library for Proteus.
  • Gas Sensor Library for Proteus.
  • PIR Sensor Library for Proteus.
  • Vibration Sensor Library for Proteus.
  • Infrared Sensor Library for Proteus.
• Adding these libraries is quite simple, you just need to place their files in the library folder of Proteus software.
• If you got any issues, then read this guide on How to add a Library in Proteus 8.

Once you added all the libraries, now open your Proteus software.

Designing Circuit Diagram in Proteus

• Now we need to design a circuit for our project, so select these components from Proteus Components Search Box.
• First of all, let's design the voltage regulator circuit using LM7805, which will be simply converting the voltage from 12V to 5V.

• As you can see in the above figure, I have used 12V Battery, while the output of LM7805 is showing 5V and I have also placed an LED for power indication.

LCD Interfacing with Arduino:

• Next, we need to interface 20x4 LCD with Arduino UNO, so design the circuit as shown in the below figure:

Next, we need to interface five sensors with Arduino UNO, so let's add them to our Proteus simulation:

Sensors Interfacing with Arduino:

• These are simple digital & analog sensors and are all powered up at 5V.
• So, simply connect them as shown in the below figure:

• The Flame Sensor is connected to pin A0 of Arduino UNO.
• Gas Sensor is connected to pin A1 of Arduino UNO.
• PIR Sensor is connected to pin A2 of Arduino UNO.
• The Vibration Sensor is connected to pin A3 of Arduino UNO.
• The Infrared Sensor is connected to pin A4 of Arduino UNO.

For simulation, ensure all hex files are uploaded to each sensor for proper working. You can upload the source code hex file to the Arduino, by pressing Ctrl+E or by right click --> Edit properties.

Buzzer & Push Button:

• Finally, we need to add the Buzzer to sound the alarm in emergency cases, I have connected it to Pin A5 of Arduino UNO.
• I have also connected a push-button for switching the modes, connected to Pin 7 of Arduino UNO, as shown in the below figure:

• Here's the image of the complete Proteus Simulation for Home Security System:

Now let's design the Arduino programming code for Home Security Project:

Arduino Code for Home Security System

In the previous section, we have designed the Proteus simulation of the project, now let's design its Arduino Code to make it alive. Let's get started:

Initialization LCD Arduino Code

• First of all, we need to define all our variables, as you can see in the code shown in the right figure.
• I have included the Liquid Crystal Library, which is used to operate LCD.
• Next, I have defined all my sensors to the respective pins and then initialized boolean variables for storing the output of sensors.
• In the Setup loop, I have made the sensors' pins input pullup using the pinMode Arduino command.
• Finally, displayed an initialization message on the LCD screen i.e. "Home Security System using Arduino UNO By TEP".
• The message will display for around 1 second and then LCD will be cleared and the SensorDisplay function will be called, which will simply write sensors' names on the LCD screen.
• Now compile your code and add the hex file in Arduino UNO and run your PRoteus simulation.
• If everything goes fine, you will get results as shown in the below figure:

So far, we have just displayed the sensor's names, now let's read the sensors' data in the loop section:

Reading Sensors' Data

• In the loop section, first of all, we need to read the sensors' data using the digitalRead command, as shown in the code.
• After reading the sensor's data, I have called the SensorValues function, in which I have placed a check on each sensor's value and updated it on LCD.
• It's quite straightforward code, if the sensor is giving HIGH output, I am displaying Yes on LCD and if it's LOW, I am simply printing No.
• We haven't yet defined the modes, so the project will keep on reading the sensors and will display their respective value in the LCD.
• As you can see in the below figure, if the TestPin of the sensor is HIGH, its respective value on LCD is showing "Yes" and if it's LOW then "No" is written.
• Now, if you change any sensor's value, its respective value on LCD will be updated.

So, we have successfully interfaced our sensors with Arduino UNO and now it's time to add operational modes to our project.

Two Operational Modes

• As I mentioned earlier, we need to add two operational modes in our project, and the push button will be used for conversion from one mode to another.
• So, I have simply added an If loop in my code, as shown in the figure on the right side.
• In normal mode, I have simply displayed the name of the mode at the first line of LCD.
• While in secure mode, I am checking if either of the sensors goes HIGH, simply turn ON the Buzzer.
• Although, you won't be able to hear the Buzzer sound in the below figure, but you can see Buzzer's Pin is HIGH because two of the sensors are giving a response. Check the video for Buzzer working.

• We normally need to use an optocoupler or relay driver in between the buzzer and microcontroller as buzzers normally operate at 12V, but 5V buzzers are also available.
• Here's the complete Arduino Code:

/* * All rights reserved to TEP www.TheEngineeringProjects.com */ #include const int rs = 12, en = 11, d4 = 5, d5 = 4, d6 = 3, d7 = 2; LiquidCrystal lcd(rs, en, d4, d5, d6, d7); #define Flame A0 #define Gas A1 #define Pir A2 #define Vib A3 #define Ir A4 #define Buzzer A5 #define Switch 7 boolean Fire, Smoke, Intruder, Window, Door; boolean Mode = false; void setup() { pinMode(Flame,INPUT_PULLUP); pinMode(Gas,INPUT_PULLUP); pinMode(Pir,INPUT_PULLUP); pinMode(Vib,INPUT_PULLUP); pinMode(Ir,INPUT_PULLUP); pinMode(Switch,INPUT_PULLUP); pinMode(Buzzer,OUTPUT); lcd.begin(20,4); pinMode(Buzzer, OUTPUT); lcd.setCursor(0,1); lcd.print("HOME SECURITY SYSTEM"); lcd.setCursor(0,2); lcd.print(" USING ARDUINO UNO "); lcd.setCursor(7,3); lcd.print("By TEP "); //delay(700); lcd.clear(); SensorDisplay(); } void loop() { Fire = digitalRead(Flame); Smoke = digitalRead(Gas); Intruder = digitalRead(Pir); Window = digitalRead(Vib); Door = digitalRead(Ir); Mode = digitalRead(Switch); SensorValues(); if(Mode==false) // Normal mode { lcd.setCursor(4,0); lcd.print("Normal Mode"); } else // Secure Mode { lcd.setCursor(4,0); lcd.print("Secure Mode"); if((Fire == HIGH) || (Smoke == HIGH) || (Intruder == HIGH) || (Window == HIGH) || (Door == HIGH)){ digitalWrite(Buzzer, HIGH); }else{ digitalWrite(Buzzer, LOW); } } } void SensorDisplay() { lcd.setCursor(0,1); lcd.print("Fire:"); lcd.setCursor(10,1); lcd.print("Smoke:"); lcd.setCursor(0,2); lcd.print("Door:"); lcd.setCursor(10,2); lcd.print("Window:"); lcd.setCursor(0,3); lcd.print("Intruder:"); } void SensorValues() { if(Fire == true){ lcd.setCursor(6,1); lcd.print("Yes");} else{ lcd.setCursor(6,1); lcd.print("No ");} if(Smoke == true){lcd.setCursor(17,1); lcd.print("Yes");} else{lcd.setCursor(17,1); lcd.print("No ");} if(Intruder == true){lcd.setCursor(11,3); lcd.print("Yes");} else{lcd.setCursor(11,3); lcd.print("No ");} if(Window == true){lcd.setCursor(17,2); lcd.print("Yes");} else{lcd.setCursor(17,2); lcd.print("No ");} if(Door == true){lcd.setCursor(6,2); lcd.print("Yes");} else{lcd.setCursor(6,2); lcd.print("No ");} }

Future Scope of Home Security System

• Embedded has taken over the whole world because of its user-friendliness and low cost.
• Instead of hiring security guards(which is quite expensive), now smart homes in modern societies are equipped with such home security systems.
• Modern Home Security systems are even linked with local police or security agencies for emergency help.
• Moreover, these security systems are not bound to homes only, nowadays offices, banks, shopping malls etc. are all equipped with such smart security systems.

Future Work on Home Security System

• Today, we have designed a very simple Home Security System, where we interfaced few sensors and have only placed a Buzzer.
• We will continue this project and will add smart features to it.
• Let's have a look at few features, which we can add to this project:
  1. We can interface the GSM module to send messages, in case of emergency.
  2. We can add more sensors i.e. ultrasonic sensors, different types of Gas sensors in it.
  3. We can also improve our code by using interrupts instead of polling.
  4. We can also add a camera for facial recognition.
  5. To improve the security, we can add a keypad and only authorized persons will have the access to enter.
  6. The fingerprint sensor can also be used for identification purposes.

No matter what happens, you should put safety first. Even a great security system won’t ensure full protection, which is why you might want to consider secondary measures. Hiring fire watch security will assist you on a daily basis, performing tasks that machines cannot. These veterans will protect your home or office, addressing potential hazards as they appear.

So, that was all for today. I hope you guys have enjoyed today's project. If you have any questions/queries, please ask in the comments and I will try my best to resolve them asap. Thanks for reading, take care. Bye :)

Periodic Table of Elements: Definition, Groups & Trends

Hello friends, I hope you all are doing great. In today's tutorial, we will have a look at a detailed overview of Periodic Table. Understanding the Periodic Table is one of the nightmares everyone had once in a lifetime, don't fret! I was one of those people too. Today I would be breaking down this complex topic into smaller digestible chunks. Before diving deep into the topic let me introduce you to the fact that atomic number is more reliable than the atomic mass of an element, every element has a fixed atomic number and it increases by a value of 1 with every element in the modern periodic table, that is the reason why we use Atomic Number instead of Atomic Mass as the base of the modern periodic table.

History of Periodic Table

Rome wasn't built in a day, in the same way, the modern periodic table isn't the product of a single effort from a chemist or two, it took two centuries to complete. The older version of periodic table was based on Atomic Masses by Dimitri Mendeleev, Many scientists contributed to the formation of the periodic table such as:

• Doberiner presented the idea of Triads when he observed the relationship between the atomic masses of three elements. Within a Triad the central element had the atomic mass equal to the average of two corresponding elements.

• Newlands proposed the Law of Octaves in 1864 when he observed the repetition of properties in every eighth element, when elements were arranged in an order of increasing atomic masses.

Later on, after the discovery of atomic numbers by Henry Mosley in 1913 and some new elements modern periodic table is now based on the increasing order of atomic numbers which was proposed by Henry himself when he discovered atomic numbers. Let's have a look at the proper definition of periodic table:

Periodic Table Definition

Let’s start with its basic definition;

• Periodic Table is the tabular arrangement of elements in the order of increasing atomic numbers, Hydrogen having the smallest atomic number, meanwhile, Oganesson having the highest atomic number of all.
• The vertical columns from top to bottom are called Groups in the periodic table, which are 18 in number.
• The horizontal rows from left to right are called Periods. There are 7 periods in the Periodic table.
• Here's the image showing the modern Periodic Table:

Arrangement of Modern Periodic Table

The periodic table has 118 elements till now, we can figure out a lot of things about an element just by looking at it, such as:

• Atomic weight is present at the top right corner.
• Atomic number is at the top left corner.
• Electronic configuration of valence shell can be seen at the bottom left corner.

Consider the following example for better understanding:

Groups and Periods

As I have mentioned earlier, elements are arranged in an order of increasing atomic number in the form of rows and columns called periods and groups respectively. When I was a student I was always confused about period and group, so here's a trick if you're struggling too, just cram it as " top to bottom in a group" so whenever you'll think of a group you'd have an idea what exactly you're thinking about.

Blocks in Periodic Table

• Periodic table can be divided into four blocks, s, p, d and f.
• Have you ever thought why they are named s, d and p? They could have been named a, b, c or d! Let me figure this out for you:
• Blocks are named after the electronic configuration of valence electrons.
• For example, all s block elements have their valence electrons in s subshell and same goes for p block elements, interesting! Isn't it?

Groups in Periodic Table

There are 18 groups in periodic table which are named as:

• Group 1 comprising of Alkali Metals
• Group 2 having Alkaline Earth metals
• Group 3 – Group 12 housing Transition elements
• Group 13 housing Boron family
• Group 14 with Carbon family
• Group 15 containing Nitrogen family
• Group 16 having Oxygen family
• Group 17 with Halogens
• Group 18 containing Inert or Noble gases

Group 1 of Periodic Table: Alkali Metals

• This is the very first group of the periodic table and its members are called Alkali metals with elements Hydrogen being the lightest having an atomic number of 1, succeeded by Helium, Sodium, Potassium, Rubidium, lastly Cesium and Francium in the family.
• You might have thought why they are called alkali metals? Upon reacting with water these metals give strong alkalis, naming them as alkali metals. 

Physical Properties of Alkali Metals:

• Physically they are shiny, lustrous and sleek in appearance.

Chemical Properties of Alkali Metals:

• Alkali metals are highly reactive and their reactivity increases down the group.
• All of them have low Ionization energies so it is easier for them to lose an electron.
• They are mostly found in an oxidation state of +1.

Group 2 of Periodic Table

• Group 2 elements were discovered by Humphry, it contains highly reactive elements which result in oxides upon reacting with oxygen, and these oxides when dissolved in water produce strong alkali solutions taking their name as Alkaline Earth Metals.
• Alkaline earth metals have Beryllium, Magnesium, Calcium, Strontium, Barium and Radium in the group with an order of increasing atomic number.
• They are very reactive and so are considered strong reducing agents. Do you know what a reducing agent is?

“A reducing agent is a chemical species which can lose electrons easily in a chemical reaction and hence oxidizes itself”. Chemical Properties of Alkaline Earth Metals:

• They are highly reactive in their natural forms being strong reducing agents.
• They can easily become a cation with 2+ charge by losing two electrons from their outermost shell.

Physical Properties of Alkaline Earth Metals:

• They are highly abundant in nature.
• They have a shiny appearance and are often silvery-white in color.
• They have a lot of commercial applications.

Group 3-12 of Periodic Table

• This group comprises of the d and f block elements which are found in the center of the periodic table and are famously known as Transition Elements.
• d block elements are called outer transition elements meanwhile f block elements are called inner transition elements despite the fact that they occupy totally opposite places in the periodic table.
• You might have thought why d and f block elements are called transition elements?

Here is a simple answer to the question, the d and f block elements have their properties in between s and p blocks elements, some of them show the characteristic behaviors of s block that is Group 1 and 2 elements by losing electrons meanwhile some of the elements resemble p block elements by gaining electrons during a chemical reaction in this way they take their name as transition elements. Following are the families found in the transitional groups:

• Group 3 has Scandium family.
• Group 4 houses elements like Titanium making them Titanium family.
• Group 5 is called Vanadium family.
• Group 6 has Chromium family having very famous members like Tungsten.
• Group 7 is Manganese family.
• Group 8 is the Iron family, who is not familiar with this super famous element? We all have been hearing it since childhood.
• Group 9 is the Cobalt family.
• Group 10 has Nickel family with its famous members like Platinum, you all have heard of Platinum rings and bands right?
• Group 11 has been crowned by Copper along with Silver-Ag as its succeeding member.
• Group 12 lastly forms the Zinc family with its ever useful and renowned member Mercury which is the only metal found in the liquid state on room temperature, that's is the reason it is commonly used in Thermometers! 

Lanthanides and Actinides:

• These are f block, inner transitional elements with unique properties as clearly visible by their names.

Actinides have the following properties:

• Atomic number ranges from 89 to 103
• Radioactive in nature
• Valence electrons in 5f orbitals
• Oxidation state can be up to +6

Lanthanides have the following properties:

• Atomic number ranges from 57 to 71
• Valence electrons are present in 4f orbitals
• They are not radioactive in nature
• Can maximally go up to +4 oxidation state

Chemical Properties:

• They are excellent conductors of electricity because of the formation of electronic pool in their structure, when I was in school I used to think of the best conductor of all the Transition Elements, at that time I didn't have Google so I could have searched, I have got to know now, it's Silver which is the best of all these metals in terms of conductivity.
• They form complex ions and colored compounds as a product of their chemical reactions.
• They have high melting and boiling points. 

Physical Properties:

• These groups have metals which are Malleable and Ductile, which in simple terms mean; they can be turned into sheets and wires.
• In terms of physical appearance they have shiny and lustrous appearance, if you forget in any case the properties possessed by these groups just recall that Silver is a transition metal with a shiny, lustrous appearance and can be turned into jewelry too. 

Group 13 of Periodic Table

• Group 13 elements are also called Boron family with other elements like Aluminum, Gallium, Indium, Thallium and Nihonium in the order of increasing atomic number, Boron being the smallest and Nihonium being the largest element but synthetic in nature.
• Group 13 elements are also called Triels or trivalent because of the presence of three electrons in their valence shells.

Chemical Properties and Usage:

• You must have been thinking about the chemical properties of this group! So let me tell you, they are highly abundant in nature and reactive too they can react with hydrogen, oxygen and halogens forming hydrides, oxides and halides respectively.
• Boron family has isotopes too which have wide applications in medical field.
• From Boron being used in ceramics to the Aluminum which is the most abundant metal of earth crust being used in construction and metal works, Indium and Gallium are not lesser than any of the other group members, they have a lot of commercial applications too.
• Thallium is used in the production of poisons for killing reptiles and rodents.

Group 14 of Periodic Table

• This is known as the famous Carbon family with its top most members as Carbon and Silicon.

Physical Properties and Usage:

• When thinking of Carbon one must recalls the chemical reactions in Organic Chemistry which were never an easy pill to swallow! Phewww! Carbon has the unique bonding ability to form long chains which is called “Catenation”, all thanks to catenation we have another branch of chemistry known as Organic chemistry. Not only organic chemistry, but Diamond and Graphite are also the gifts of Carbon being their allotropes.

• Next to Carbon is Silicon which is one the most abundant elements on the planet Earth and is commercially used in the formation of semiconductor diodes and chips used in various technological devices. Germanium is used in the formation of semiconductors as well.
• Who's not aware of lead and tin? Both of the elements are used commercially because of their stable nature in the formation of cans, nuts and bolts.

Chemical Properties of Carbon Family

• Carbon family has four electrons in its valence shells which results in covalent bonding.
• Covalent bonding is the reason of their high melting and boiling points.
• All of the group members form hydrides, oxides and halides reacting with hydrogen, oxygen and halogens respectively.
• They are usually found in the oxidation states of +3, -4 and +4.

Group 15 of Periodic Table

• Group 15 is also known as the Nitrogen family or Pnictogens.
• The name Pnictogens points to the ability of nitrogen to choke in the absence of Oxygen. Other members of the group include Phosphorus, Arsenic and Bismuth.

Reactivity:

• Nitrogen and Phosphorus act as non-metals whereas Arsenic and Antimony have proven themselves to be metalloids, meanwhile the last member Bismuth is a metal.
• They form covalent compounds due to the presence of five electrons in their valence shell and are mostly found in the oxidation state of +3 or +5

Usage:

• Nitrogen is found abundantly in nature, you might have thought of it earlier while studying Nitrogen Cycle in your school textbooks. Chefs using liquid nitrogen to freeze a dessert instantly has always fascinated me, it is due to its unique ability to stay non-reactive at room temperature. Nitrogen is used in fertilizers and has countless commercial applications.
• Meanwhile other members of the family are not less than any other element, Phosphorus is highly flammable and used in manufacturing explosives and fireworks and has three forms red, black and white.
• Arsenic being poisonous founds its use in fertilizers.
• Bismuth is used in pharmaceutical industry for production of several beneficial drugs.

Group 16 of Periodic Table

• Elements of group 16 are also called Chalcogens, as interesting as the name sounds, the reason behind the name lies in the ore forming ability of these elements.
• Oxygen, Sulphur, Selenium, Tellurium and Polonium are the members of this groups.

Chemical Reactivity:

• Chemical reactivity increase down the group with the increase in atomic number.
• Total number of valence electrons are six in the family which encourage covalent bonding, as it is very difficult to loose six electrons meanwhile gaining two electrons to complete the octet would be easier, isn't it?
• Oxidation state of -2 is most common among the group, Sulphur can exist as +4 and +6 as well.

Usage:

• Oxygen is the most abundant one, now a days we have seen an enormous demand for clinical oxygen in Covid stricken patients, different types of oxygen is obtained by fractional distillation in plants under specific conditions, many industries such as steel mills use oxygen in their processes as well.
• Sulphur is found in the form of ores and is used in the formation of fungicides and several medicines.
• Selenium and tellurium are photoconductive meanwhile polonium is a rare radioactive metal.

Group 17 of Periodic Table

• Elements of the group 17 are called Halogens and are highly reactive, students often ask about the reason behind their unique name, so cracking it for you Halogen is a Greek word which has been derived from two words “Halo” meaning “Salt” and “Gen” means “to produce something”, the term collectively means “salt producing”.
• These elements are called halogens because of their salt producing ability when they react with an alkali metal. Halogens include Fluorine, Chlorine, Bromine, and Iodine.

Chemical Reactivity:

• Fluorine is the most reactive element of this group.
• All the halogens have seven electrons in their outermost shell so they can easily gain an electron in a chemical reaction. They have a usual oxidation state of -1.
• They are good oxidizing agents because of their higher electron affinities.

Physical Properties:

• Halogens turn into a darker color as we move from top to bottom in the group. Fluorine being pale yellow, meanwhile Chlorine has a greenish yellow tint, Bromine is found in brown color and lastly Iodine has a purple hue.
• First two elements are gases, Bromine is a liquid and Iodine exists as a solid at room temperature.

Usage:

• You must have watched a million ads on the television about fluoride toothpaste, yeah! It helps in preventing tooth decay. Fluorine has always been a fundamental part of dental industry.
• Chlorine is a bleaching agent and used to purify water as well especially in swimming pools.
• Bromine is used for water purification, pesticide production and in pharmaceutical companies as well.
• Using Iodized salt is a common practice in many countries, because it helps in improving growth and metabolism when used in appropriate amounts. Iodine is also used as a topical antiseptic agent.

Group 18 of Periodic Table

Elements of group 18 are also known as Noble gases, who is termed as a noble? A person who never mess around with anyone, same is the state of Noble gases, they're inert and don't react with anything because of the very obvious reason, can you guess? Yeah! You guessed it right. They have a complete octet, they don't have to reach out anyone to be stable. Noble gases include Helium, Neon, Argon, Krypton and Xenon. Physical and Chemical Properties:

• Noble gases are colorless and odorless in normal conditions.
• They have low melting and boiling points.
• Noble gases can be used as oxidizing agents under special circumstances.

 Usage and Applications:

• We all have seen ice cream cone as a lighting sign with popping colors outside the ice cream parlor, they're called Neon signs, the gas in them is not exactly neon every time but is always a Noble gas. All Noble gases give out their specific color when lighted.
• Helium balloons have also remained eye candy to every one of us in our childhoods as Helium gas is very light in nature that is the reason it is used for filling balloons.
• One of the latest applications of the noble gases are Excimers, these are the diamer forms of Noble gases and have wide applications in medical field. They help in eye surgery and myocardial repair.

Trends in the Periodic Table

In order to understand the trends found in the periodic table we must understand the term periodicity “Periodicity refers to the cyclical trend in the chemical and physical properties of the elements with increasing atomic number.” Periodicity help us understand and predict various trends among the family members of same group just like offspring from same parents have some general characteristics in common , they all may have blue eyes or black hair or anything in common as a family, families of the periodic table also have common characteristics in the similar ways.  Some of the periodic trends in the periodic table are;

• Atomic radii.
• Ionization energy.
• Electron affinity.
• Electronegativity.
• Shielding effect.
• Metallic and Nonmetallic  behavior.

Atomic Radii Trend in Periodic Table

• Atomic radii is one of the core aspects that can make the elements behave in a certain way in a chemical reaction.

Factors effecting the Atomic Radii:

• Atomic number
• Number of shells : As we move from top to bottom in a Group the atomic number increases, this gradual increase in the atomic number makes the atomic radii larger and larger by adding in a number of shells

Trend across the Group:

• When the atomic radii grows larger from top to bottom in a group, the hold of the nucleus on the valence electrons decreases.
• This decreased force on the valence electrons increases the reactivity of an element.
• So we can conclude that as we move towards the bottom an increase in reactivity of the elements can be predicted, why? Because they are less bounded by the nuclear forces and are free to react.

Trend across the Period:

• Similarly when moving left to right in a period , atomic radii decreases due to the decrease in atomic number and hence reactivity of the elements decreases , all thanks to strong grip of the nuclear forces on the valence electrons which pulls the electronic cloud towards itself.

Largest and smallest element With respect to Radius

• You might have thought which is the largest and the smallest element in terms of radius? Let me tell you, the smallest one is Helium meanwhile the largest one is Francium.

Exceptional Behavior:

• There are a few exceptions in the normal trend as well because all the five fingers can never be same.
• Ooxygen has a larger radius than its neighboring nitrogen all because nitrogen has seven proton in its nucleus meanwhile oxygen has eight so it has larger ionization energy value.

Ionization energy Trend in Periodic Table

Ionization energy can be defined as:

• "Ionization energy is the amount of energy required to remove the loosely bound electron from the outermost shell of a neutral gaseous atom in its ground state".

Factors effecting ionization energy:

• Atomic radius
• Shielding effect
• Increased atomic number

Trend across the Group:

• Ionization energy is mainly governed by the atomic radii, as we move from top to bottom in a group atomic radii increases, which results in a decline in effective nuclear charge.
• A declined effective nuclear charge and an increased shielding effect leads to the lesser binding force on the valence electrons, when the valence electrons have less nuclear force on them, what would happen? That would be easy to remove by giving a small amount of energy, this energy is called the ionization energy.
• Summing up we can say ionization energy decreases down the group as we move towards the bottom.

Trend across the Period:

• When moving across a period from left to right, the effective nuclear charge increases leading to a decrease in atomic radii, ultimately shielding effect also decreases, all these factors make it highly difficult to remove an electron rather they would prefer to gain an electron or two for stability.
• So we can say that ionization energy increases from left to right in a period. 

Types of ionization energy; There are two types of ionization energy

• First ionization energy
• Second ionization energy

Following is an example of first and second ionization energy:

• First ionization energy is the energy required to remove the electrons from a neutral gaseous atom.
• Second ionization energy refers to the amount of energy required for removal of an electron from the molecular ion or cation.

So here is an understandable clear fact which must not be missed in any way; second ionization energy is always higher than the first one. Let me explain why! It happens because of the increase of additional positive charge on the electronic cloud because of the removal of electron, nucleus tightens its grip on the valence shell, and hence a large amount of energy is required to remove an electron which is always higher than the first one.

Shielding effect Trend in Periodic Table

Before studying the shielding effect let's discuss what does a shield do? A shield masks or hinders the effect of any force applied to a body, when same principle is applied to an atom, we can define shielding effect as:

• "When the inner shell electrons shield the effect of nucleus, decreasing the effective nuclear charge on the valence electrons, then this phenomenon is called shielding effect".

Shielding effect decreases the effective nuclear charge experienced by the valence electrons. So now you must be thinking what is effective nuclear charge?

• "Effective nuclear charge is the average net positive charge experienced by an electron from its nucleus".

Trend across the Group:

• As the atomic number increases the number of shells in each atom also increase, with every additional shell there's a greater shielding effect on the valence electrons.

Trend across the Period:

• Shielding effect increases from top to bottom in a group meanwhile it remains constant from left to right in a period.
• The sole reason behind constant shielding effect from left to right is the same number of shells in all the elements residing in a period, no additional shell leads to constant shielding effect. Simple!

Electronegativity Trend in Periodic Table

Electronegativity can be defined as,

• "The ability of an atom to attract the shared pair of electrons partially or completely towards itself when bonded to another atom in a molecule".

Whenever we study covalent bonds we often talk about the poles, this is a polar covalent bond that is a non-polar one, you might have thought which causes this polarity within the molecules? So now you have your answer, electronegativity difference causes polarity in a molecule. Electronegativity values of certain elements have already been determined, the difference between their values i.e. the electronegativity difference help us predict the nature of bond, whether it would be ionic, covalent, slightly polar or moderately polar in nature. Factors effecting Electronegativity: Electronegativity of an element is effected by the following:

• Atomic number
• Number of valence electrons
• Shielding effect and effective nuclear charge
• Atomic radii

Trend across the period:

• In the periodic table electronegativity increases across the period when moving left to right, fluorine being crowned as the most electronegative element of all having the value if 4.
• All thanks to the strong grip of nucleus on the electronic cloud, which never lets anyone escape its grip!

Trend across the group:

• Meanwhile due to increase in atomic number and shielding effect, electronegativity decreases down the group, so these elements have lesser tendency to keep the shared pair of the electrons towards themselves so we can say that the left bottom elements of the periodic table can never be good keepers of the shared electrons.

Electron Affinity Trend in Periodic Table

Electron affinity is the opposite of Ionization energy which we have discussed earlier, ionization energy is the energy required for removal of an electron on the other hand electron affinity is the energy required for the addition of an electron to an atom.

• Electron affinity can be defined as “the amount of energy released when an electron is added to a neutral gaseous atom turning it into an anion.”

As energy is being released the process is exothermic in nature.

• Halogens have highest electron affinities in the periodic table
• Metals have lowest electron affinities in the periodic table.

Factors effecting electron affinity: Electron affinity is effected by the following:

• Atomic number
• Number of valence electrons
• Shielding effect and effective nuclear charge
• Atomic radii.

Trend across the Group:

• When we move from top to bottom in a group, atomic radii increases resulting in a weak nuclear charge on the valence electrons.
• So what you think now what would be the trend? I hope you can easily guess it by now! Yes you are right, electron affinity would decrease from top to bottom in a group.

Trend across the Period:

• From left to right in a period, effective nuclear charge never let anyone move astray like street animals, so it has strong hold on the valence shell, adding an electron releases a huge amount of energy which corresponds to higher electron affinity values increasing the electron affinity values gradually across the period.

Element with highest electron affinity:

• Chlorine has the highest electron affinity of all the elements even higher than fluorine because of its structural compactness as compared to fluorine.

Metallic Character Trend in Periodic Table

• Metallic character is one of the most interesting properties possessed by elements, as indicated by name, “metallic character is the ability of metal to lose electron during a chemical reaction.”
• Metallic character is observed due to the least ionization energy values of the metals which tend to loose electrons easily to remain stable rather than keeping them.

Electron pool theory: While discussing metallic character we must not forget electronic pool theory , Electronic pool theory is about the metallic character of the metals which tend to lose all their valence electrons turning it into a pool of electrons around a positive charge , this is the reason of their electrical conductivity, now you know! Trend across the Group: Metallic character increases down the group because of the following factors that come into play;

• Increased atomic number.
• Increased atomic radii.
• Lesser ionization energy.

In the presence of above factors, metals tend to lose electrons easily. Trend across the Period:

• From left to right in the periods metallic character decreases due to higher effective nuclear charge and smaller electronic clouds, so it is extremely difficult to lose an electron and exhibit metallic character.

Most and Least Metallic Elements:

• The most metallic of all the elements is Francium, meanwhile Fluorine is the least metallic or non-metallic element of the periodic table.

So that was all about periodic table and its groups with their brief introduction and general trends, I hope it helped you clear some general misconceptions we all have in our minds regarding the topic. See you with another topic soon, have a good day!

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• Use active tense and avoid passive.
  • Passive: When I was working on the project, then I have designed this circuit that I have shown here.
  • Active: I have designed this circuit while working on a project, shown in below figure:

Blogger’s Qualities

• Innovative/Creative.
• Conveys the message properly.
• Precise.
• Appropriate.
• Friendly.

Tip: Read other Top bloggers’ work.

Examples

1. What is Mechatronics Engineering?
2. Introduction to MOSFET

Modern Technology Improves Efficiency Of Construction Vehicles

Hello friends, I hope you all are doing great. In today's tutorial, we will have a look at How Modern Technology Improves the Efficiency Of Construction Vehicles. The building industry has been slow to embrace technology, and still, only one in eight construction executives consider their company to be technologically advanced. However, where greater digitization has been adopted, it has been shown to increase productivity and enable better collaboration.

It’s easy to see how certain aspects of construction such as designing plans, manipulating 3D models and sourcing materials can be enhanced by technology. In contrast, heavy machinery and manual labor are still essential on-site to carry out the hard, physical work of construction. However, with the introduction of telematics and AI, and a switch to more electric vehicles and automated machinery, even heavy vehicles can be made safer and more efficient with technology.

Digital Vehicle Maintenance Programs

Of all construction projects undertaken, only 30% are completed on time, with delays often attributed to faulty or broken down machinery. To avoid unnecessary downtime and improve productivity, high-tech maintenance programs can streamline the upkeep and repair of heavy equipment. When telematics, sensors and instrumentation are installed on on-site equipment, large amounts of data can be analyzed to see how vehicles are performing.

Information gathered from sensors can help to identify when machinery is active or idle, allowing contractors to improve productivity and maximize fuel efficiency. This data can also be used to predict future problems and promptly deal with maintenance and repair issues before they cause unnecessary delays. Some parts need changing regularly to ensure the smooth running of equipment. With scheduling software, it’s easy to check when to replace the air filters on a crawler bulldozer or keep a record of upgrading Bobcat 3T320 tracks to match the performance of the new powerful compact loader. Implementing regular upgrades and repairs saves time in the long run, and helps to prevent building projects from exceeding projected budgets and schedules.

Autonomous And Remote Controlled Vehicles

Maintaining vehicles and heavy equipment is essential, not only to increase productivity but also to improve safety levels for on-site operators. The most common cause of injury for construction workers on site is being struck by vehicles, machinery or other building materials, and around 75% of the fatalities from being struck involve heavy vehicles such as trucks or cranes. As the use of self-driving construction equipment is becoming more common, these accidents and injuries could be minimized. Machines equipped with sensors, cameras and Light Detection and Ranging Laser Scanning technology (LIDAR) can easily detect workers and other machinery to avoid collisions. With remote control technology, workers can safely operate machines using a transmitter or even a smartphone app. Away from the cab, they are safe from the dangers of machinery toppling over on them, and, with unobstructed views of the site, they can take away the risk of other workers being pinned or crushed by vehicles.

Wireless Communication Enables Autonomous Mining

Autonomous machinery is already used widely in the mining industry. Sensors and cameras provide data to enable machine learning AI to drive a variety of vehicles, and some mines have now replaced manually driven equipment with fully autonomous diggers and crushers. Fully automated mines are possible where reliable wireless communication is available, allowing for fast and dependable mobile connections. This means that trucks and other vehicles can be controlled from a distance by a single operator, improving productivity and reducing costly communication errors.

Electric Construction Vehicles Reduce Carbon Emissions

On-site construction processes, including the use of heavy machinery, account for 11% of all global carbon emissions. In the US, The Environmental Protection Agency (EPA) has been introducing increasingly stricter limitations on emissions for off-road diesel engines, and in the future, it is likely that requirements for zero emissions from heavy construction vehicles could be introduced. This means the introduction of more electric vehicles, which, as well as being cleaner, are cheaper to run and less noisy. This is a particular benefit for sites in congested cities where pollution from noise and emissions is more strictly regulated.

Although the construction industry has been slow to digitize, new technologies are helping to streamline processes and improve productivity. This now also applies to vehicles and heavy machinery that are being adapted to run more efficiently, produce fewer emissions, and reduce the risk of accidents on site.