The Engineering Projects

What is a Semiconductor? Types, Examples & Applications

Hello Friends, I hope you’re well today. Today, we are going to start a new tutorial series on Semiconductors. In this series, we will discuss the semiconductor components, devices, etc. in detail. We will start from the very basics and will gradually move towards complex concepts.

As today's our first tutorial in this series, we will discuss the basics of semiconductors. So, let's get started:

What is a Semiconductor?

• A Semiconductor Material is defined by its ability to conduct electricity and its conductive properties lie between conductor and insulator, normally ranging between 10^-6 to 10^-4 (Ωm)^-1.
• Under specific conditions, Semiconductors have the ability to act either as a pure conductor or a pure insulator.
• Examples of Semiconductor materials are Silicon, Germanium, Gallium Arsenide etc., where Silicon is the most commonly used.
• Gallium arsenide stands as the second-best semiconductor material and is used in solar cells, laser diodes, microwave frequency integrated circuits etc.

Why Semiconductors?

The main advantage of a semiconductor is its ability to control the flow of electrical current(electrical charges) by creating a PN Junction. The conductors lack this ability as they allow current to flow in both directions. We will discuss PN Junction in our next lecture.

In order to understand the conductive behavior of semiconductors, we need to understand their construction and Energy Levels:

Electrical Properties of Solids

After the discovery of electricity(credit goes to Benjamin Franklin), scientists have divided earthly materials into 3 main categories, depending on their electrical conductivity, titled:

1. Conductor: has the ability to conduct electricity i.e. Copper, Silver, Gold, Aluminium etc.
2. Insulator: doesn't allow electrical charges to flow through it i.e. Plastic, Diamond, Rubber etc.
3. Semiconductor: A material whose properties stand between conductor and insulator i.e. silicon, germanium, gallium arsenide etc.

This diversity in the conductive behavior of solids failed Bohr's model of free electrons. Instead, the Energy Band Theory based on Wave Mechanical Model was used to explain it.

So, in order to understand the conductive behavior of solids, we need to first have a look at the Energy Band Theory:

Energy Band Theory

As we know, a solid atom has various energy bands filled with electrons. In all these energy bands, the electrons remain bound to the nucleus and have distinct energy levels. The electrons present in the outermost energy band of an atom are called valence electrons and the outermost band itself is called valence band.

Above the valance band, we have another band called Conduction Band. The Conduction Band also has electrons but these electrons are not bound to the Nucleus of the atom and are thus called Free Electrons or Conductive Electrons. The electricity passes through solids because of these free electrons present in the Conduction Band.

There's an empty space present between the Valance Band and Conduction Band, which has no electrons and is called Forbidden Energy Gap. The arrangement of the Valence Band, Conduction Band, and Forbidden Gap is shown in the below figure:

Now let's have a look at the effect of this Energy Band Theory on Solids' Electrical Behavior:

Conductive Behavior of Solids

The valance electrons in the outermost shell(valance band) keep on trying to escape to the conduction band but because of their low energy levels and the forbidden gap in between, they couldn't escape. So, in order to move the electrons from the Valence Band to the Conduction band, we need to provide external energy to these electrons.

As you can see in the above figure, there's no Forbidden Gap in the Conductors and the Valence & Conduction Bands are overlapping. That's why, when we provide external energy i.e. electricity, the current easily passes through it. The conductivity behavior of conductors is normally 10⁷ (Ωm)^-1.

In the case of Inductors, the forbidden energy gap is quite big(several eV) and thus the conduction band has no free electrons. Even if we provide external energy to it, the electrons from the Valance Band won't be able to cross the forbidden gap. The Inductors have conductivity ranging between 10^-10 to 10^-20 (Ωm)^-1.

In Semiconductors, we have a very small forbidden energy gap(around 1eV) and that's why we have few free electrons present in the Conduction Band. At 0K temperature, the Conduction Band of the Semiconductor has no electrons, as all electrons are present in its valance shell. But on increasing the temperature, the electrons get sufficient energy to jump from the valance to the conduction band. So, at 0K, the semiconductor will behave as an insulator but at room temperature, it will behave as a semiconductor. The conductivity of semiconductors lies between 10^-6 to 10^-4 (Ωm)^-1.

I hope, now you have a complete understanding of Semiconductors' electrical behavior.

What are semiconductors used for?

Semiconductors have brought a revolution in the field of electronics. Semiconductors are used for designing electronic/embedded components. Let's have a look at a few of its applications:

• The most commonly used semiconductor component is the Diode., which allows the flow of current in one direction only and thus acts as a one-way electronic valve.
• After the diode, transistor was invented, which is used for fast switching and current amplification.
• The invention of the diode & transistor opened the door to nanotechnology and new integrated chips were designed i.e. MAX232, ULN2003, CD4050 etc.
• All the integrated chips used in Embedded Systems(i.e. Microcontrollers, Microprocessors etc.) have semiconductor components embedded in them.
• Semiconductor has brought automatic control in electronic circuits, which isn't possible with conductors.

Types of Semiconductors

Engineers have divided Semiconductors into two main types, named:

1. Intrinsic Semiconductors.
2. Extrinsic Semiconductors.

Let's discuss both of them, one by one:

Intrinsic Semiconductors

• Semiconductors in their pure form are called Intrinsic Semiconductors and are barely useful as they are neither good conductors nor good insulators.
• In the pure form, the valence shell(of semiconductor material) carries an equal number of holes & electrons(silicon has 4 valence electrons).

Extrinsic Semiconductors

• Impurities(i.e. Boron, Arsenic, Antimony etc.) are added to the pure Semiconductors by a method called Doping, which increases the conductive behavior of semiconductors and such doped semiconductors are known as Extrinsic Semiconductors. (We will discuss doping shortly)

Depending on the doping material used, extrinsic semiconductors are further divided into two types, named:

• N-Type Semiconductors.
• P-Type Semiconductors.

N-Type Semiconductors

• When a Pentavalent Material(having 5 valence electrons) is used as a doping agent, four of its electrons in the valence shell create covalent bonds with the neighboring Si atoms, while the 5th electron(of the Pentavalent element) becomes a Free Electron. Such extrinsic semiconductors are called N-Type Semiconductors.

• In N-Type Semiconductors, the majority charge carriers are electrons(negatively charged).
• Pentavalent Elements normally used in the doping process are Antimony, Arsenic, Phosphorous etc.
• As a semiconductor is accepting a free electron, it is termed an Acceptor, while the pentavalent element is termed a Donor, as it's donating its electron.

P-Type Semiconductors

• When a semiconductor material is doped with a Trivalent Material(having 3 valence electrons), the 3 electrons of the trivalent element create covalent bonds with the Si atoms nearby but it couldn't provide the 4th electron and thus creates a hole(positively charged), which is actually a vacancy & waits for an electron to join. Such doped semiconductors are called P-Type Semiconductors.

• In P-Type Semiconductors, the majority charge carriers are holes(positively charged).
• Examples of Trivalent Elements used in the doping process are Boron, Gallium, Aluminium, Indium etc.
• The trivalent element is Acceptor here, while the semiconductor is Donor.

Doping of Semiconductors

• As we have discussed earlier, a semiconductor in its pure form acts as an insulator as it has an equal number of electrons and holes in its outermost shell(called the valence shell) .
• So, in order to generate conductive properties in semiconductors, a strictly controlled quantity of impurity(i.e. arsenic, boron etc.) is added by a method called Doping. (We will discuss Doping in detail in our next lecture on PN Junction)
  
• The intensity of conductive behavior depends on the type & quantity of impurity added.
• Two types of impurity elements are normally used, which are:
  • Pentavalent: Creates N-Type Semiconductors.
  • Trivalent: Creates P-Type Semiconductors.

PN Junction in Semiconductors

• If a single semiconductor material is doped with both trivalent & pentavalent impurities, both P-Type & N-Type regions are created in a single substance.
• As a result, a special barrier is created at the boundary of these two regions, which stops the flow of charge carriers and is called the PN Junction.
• This PN Junction formulated the basis of the first semiconductor component called the Diode. (We will discuss in the next lecture)
  
• Different variations of PN junction resulted in the creation of other basic components i.e. transistor, FET, MOSFET etc.(We will cover all of these in our upcoming lectures)

Now, let's have a look at a few examples of Semiconductor materials:

Semiconductor Materials

There are numerous Semiconductor materials available, a few of them are as follows:

1. Group IV of Periodic Table

• In modern IUPAC notation, it's termed as Group 14 of the Periodic Table while in semiconductor circle, it's still considered as Group IV.
• Group IV elements are the most commonly used semiconductors but few elements of this group have large band gaps and thus act as insulators.
• Semiconductors present in this group are Carbon, Silicon, Germanium, tin.

2. Compound Semiconductors

• Compound Semiconductors are designed by the chemical combination of two different elements.
• Compound semiconductors are normally designed by using elements from Group III & V of the periodic table.
• A few examples of compound semiconductors are Gallium Arsenide, Silicon Carbide etc.

3. Organic Semiconductors

• Organic semiconductors contain polymer structures, normally composed of carbon or hydrogen.
• The first organic semiconductor discovered was Bechgaard salt (TMTSF)₂ PF₆ in 1980.

4. Liquid/Amorphous Semiconductors

• Normally semiconductors are available in solid-state but few liquid/amorphous semiconductors are also discovered i.e. hydrogenated amorphous silicon.
• Few oxides and alloys also depict semiconductor behavior.

Applications of Semiconductor Materials

In today's world, electronics (especially embedded) will simply die if we remove semiconductor components from it. The semiconductor has applications in almost every sector of electronics. Let's have a look at a few applications of Semiconductors :

1. Consumer Goods(Electronics)

• We can't think of a world without Electronic devices(i.e. mobile phones, laptops, microwaves, refrigerators etc.).
• All these appliances are using semiconductor components(i.e. diode, transistor, MOSFET, integrated chip etc.) in their electronic control units.

2. Embedded Systems

• Microcontrollers/Microprocessors have revolutionized the world and are considered the base of Embedded Systems.
• These embedded controllers have nano transistors(semiconductor components) embedded in them, acting as smart switches.
• So, semiconductors play an important role in embedded systems as well.

3. Thermal Conductivity

• A few semiconductors have high thermal conductivity and are thus used as a cooling agent in thermoelectric applications.

4. Light Emitting Diode

• Instead of heat, a few semiconductors also produce light and are thus used in LEDs, OLEDs etc.
• These semiconductors are normally available in liquid or amorphous form and are used as a thin-coated film.

That’s all for today. I hope you find this article helpful. Today, we discussed the basics of Semiconductors i.e. what are semiconductors, why semiconductors? Semiconductor examples, semiconductors applications, properties of semiconductors, semiconductor companies, most commonly used semiconductor materials etc. in detail. If you have any questions you can approach me in the section below. I’d love to help you the best way I can. You are most welcome to pop your suggestions in the comment section below, they help us create quality content. Thanks for reading this post. :)

A 21st Century Tire Industry Will Revolutionize The Market

Hi Friends! Hope you’re well today. I welcome you on board. In this post today, I’ll explain how a 21st century tire industry will revolutionize the market. Tire changing and purchasing is a controversial issue for many Americans, with non-insurance purchases that are often arguably expensive. This is set to change with the rise of Tire Agent, who TechCrunch highlighted as receiving $5m in new financing in their bid to remove the mystique from tire purchasing and installation. Using smart data, they’re aiming to pull together buyers, sellers, and mechanics across the country and provide a truly equitable purchase map for those in need. With this data, the industry will be revolutionized, and technology will change how motorists deal with their tires forever in much the same way solar energy has transformed the market already.

Hidden information

One of the aims of the startup is to provide engineering information directly to customers. This would be a huge overhaul for American drivers; the NY Post estimates that 68% of motorists are not only lacking knowledge about their vehicle, but they're scared of repairing it too. With the data on offer from these startups, motorists will have the confidence to do tire changes, know how to efficiently check tire pressure, and potentially tackle more challenging costs – or at least run diagnostics before they get to the shutters of the mechanics' shop. Straight away, this will lead to changes in how tire engineering is viewed, with a movement towards the consumer market required, and less focus is given to the needs of mechanic shops and the closed-shop market.

Better pricing, better innovation

Arguably, the cost of tires and the labor that goes into replacing older models stymies innovation. If the tires work, and the market is enjoying the profit margin, there is less impetus for engineers to invent new forms of the tire and get them into that consumer market. With the impetus shifted away from costly mechanic shops and into the consumer’s wallet, it’s likely that more innovation will be seen – after all, with the wealth of information available to them, consumers will make the smartest and most long-term pick available to them as opposed to simply working from time-tested recommendations from the shop or the manufacturer. This is already creating the need for innovation in tires.

Changing with the weather

A primary reason for road users to get into the garage is to have weather-hit tires repaired or adapted. Think snowshoe and chain in winter, or rubber reinforcements on particularly hot asphalt. Increasingly, tires are starting to actively adapt to the weather, reducing the necessity for any changes at all off the road. According to CNET, Continental has been market leaders with this innovation though many businesses have created their own variants. What does this mean for consumers? Once again, putting the entire functionality and adaptability of the vehicle back into their hands will mean less time with the mechanic and a greater degree of control over what their car is going to do and how it performs. It might even help consumers to get more involved with the technology behind tire engineering.

A self-sealing future?

Self-sealing tires are common these days, but they have their drawbacks. In August 2019, CNBC raised the prospect of fully self-repairing, smart tires. Similarly, Michelin debuted a tire that doesn’t need to be inflated at all. With these smart tires on the market, the engineering outlook for tires and vehicles, in general, will be completely changed – the focus will be shifted onto improving these innovations and making them suitable for a wider market, and easily accessible for vehicles of all types. This once again gives more power to the consumer, pulling them away from mechanics and towards being positive about the technology they can deploy their vehicles to keep them on the road and healthy for longer

Ultimate energy efficiency

Pairing with the sustainable goals of the seal-sealing tire is the car-charging tire. As tires produce motion and potential energy that has the potential to be turned into actual efficient energy for the car to deploy. According to Interesting Engineering, this is becoming a reality that will help to see cars self-powered to an even greater degree. Goodyear’s BH03 concept is nothing new that was released in 2015 and has seen huge developments since then. Now, the concept is being plugged for active use, first in electric vehicles to give primary drive power but also, potentially, in combustion vehicles, to provide plenty of ways of charging the car battery that relies on sustainable tools.

Holistic benefits

Whatever form cars take, it’s undeniable that they add emissions to the world – this is true whether from a classic combustion engine emissions, or the carbon cycle of producing any other vehicle. Can tires combat this? Another Goodyear concept focuses on their ‘Oxygene’ concept, which adds biological material to the outside of the tires. The purpose of this is to actively filter onrushing air from the car as it travels, producing net benefits for the air around the vehicle as it moves. This seems like wishful thinking but these ‘green benefits’ are being used across a wide range of industries – for instance, green roofing has been a norm in many American cities for years now. It might not be too long until the average road user sees hundreds of green hubcaps and tires as they take their drive across the nation’s roads – and that they’ll enjoy the benefits, too, with clean air on the way. With this new generation of tires being green energy focused, this could easily mean a wholesale shift in tire production. A relatively static market can start to fully utilize materials science to innovate new products. This will be demonstrated in a huge range of products, but with sustainability often the goal, expect innovation hours and cash to be plunged into the likes of self-sealing tires and sustainable EV products. This will ultimately benefit the wider market and thus the engineers looking to make their name in the auto industry.

Introduction to BC558

Hello Everyone! Happy to see you here. I welcome you on board. In this post today, I’ll be discussing the Introduction to BC558. BC558 is a bipolar junction transistor used for amplification and switching purposes. It belongs to the PNP transistor family and is available in a TO-92 package. It contains collector current 100mA, indicating it can drive load under 100mA. I've previously detailed the Introduction to BC640 & BC327. I suggest you read this entire post as I will cover a complete introduction to BC558 explaining pinout, working, power ratings, physical dimensions, datasheet, and applications of BC558.   Let’s jump right in. Continue reading.

Introduction to BC558

• BC558 is a PNP bipolar junction transistor mainly used for switching and amplification purpose.
• It is made up of three terminals called collector, base, and emitter. All these terminals are different in terms of size, functions, and doping concentrations.

• The small current change at the base side is used to induce large current change across other terminals. This phenomenon is used for amplification purposes.
• BC558 is composed of three layers where one is an n-doped layer and others are p-doped layers. The n-doped layer is sandwiched between two p-doped layers.

• Both electrons and holes play a crucial rule for the transistor conductivity because here in the case of PNP transistor holes are majority carriers in contrast to NPN transistors where electrons are majority carriers.
• BC558 is also known as a current-controlled device where small current at the base terminal produces a large current change across the remaining terminals.
• This PNP transistor encompasses amplification factors ranging from 110 to 800. This factor actually predicts the amplification capability of the transistor. Simply put, it defines the capacity of the transistor it can amplify the input signal.
• BC558 is composed of silicon material and comes in a TO-92 package.
• The peak collector current is recorded 200mA that makes it a suitable pick for the amplification purpose.

BC558 Datasheet

While working with the electronic component, it’s wise to look at the datasheet that helps you better understand the main characteristic of the component. Click below to download the datasheet of BC558.

BC558 Pinout

BC558 contains three pins named:

• 1: Collector
• 2: Base
• 3: Emitter

As this is a PNP transistor, here current flows from emitter to collector as opposed to NPN transistors where current flows from the collector to emitter.

• And in both cases, the base terminal is the component that plays a vital role in the overall transistor action.

The following figure shows the pinout of BC558.

• In this case of PNP transistor, the base terminal controls the number of holes in contrast to the NPN transistor where it controls the number of electrons.
• And base terminal is negative in PNP transistors where it's positive in NPN transistors.

BC558 Working Principle

• When there is no current at the base side, both emitter and collector will be closed and the transistor is turned ON, indicating the forward-biased mode of the transistor.
• And when there is current at the base terminal both emitter and collector will remain opened indicating reverse biased mode of the transistor.

• The base terminal controls the conductivity of the transistor while the emitter terminal carries the whole current of the transistor.
• The emitter terminal is highly doped as compared to the other two terminals. The base is negative while both emitter and collector are positive.

BC558 Power Ratings

The following table represents the absolute maximum ratings of the BC558 transistors.

Absolute Maximum Ratings BC558
No.	Rating	Symbol	Value	Unit
1	Collector-Emitter Voltage	Vce	80	V
2	Collector-Base Voltage	Vcb	80	V
3	Emitter-Base Voltage	Veb	5	V
4	Collector Current	Ic	100	mA
5	Collector Peak Current	Icm	200	mA
6	Power Dissipation	Ptot	500	mW
7	Storage Temperature	Tstg	150	C

• These are the stress ratings. Before you install this component in your project, make sure these ratings don’t exceed the recommended ratings, else they can severely affect the overall working of the component and in the worst cases, can damage the entire project.
• Plus, if these ratings are applied for an extended time, the device reliability can be severely damaged.

Difference between PNP and NPN transistors

• Both transistors almost operate similarly with few exceptions. The voltage polarities and current directions will be reversed.
• In NPN transistor current flows from collector to emitter and from emitter to collector in case of PNP transistor. And holes are the majority charge carriers in PNP transistors and electrons are major charge carriers in the NPN transistors.

• And in both cases, the base terminal is responsible for the transistor conductivity i.e. it controls the number of electrons in case of NPN transistor and the number of holes in the case of PNP transistors.
• It is important to mention NPN are preferred over PNP transistors for amplification purpose because the mobility of electrons is far better and quicker than the movement of holes in PNP transistors.

• In some cases, however, both are incorporated into a single project to attain amplification.

BC558 Alternatives

The following are a few alternatives to the BC558 transistor.

• TIP127
• BC157
• 2N3906
• BC556
• BD140
• 2SA1943
• S8550
• TIP42

Before you incorporate these alternatives into your projects, pay careful heed to the pinout of these alternative transistors, as it’s possible the pinout of the alternatives may differ from the BC558 pinout.

BC558 Applications

The following are some applications of BC558:

• Used for amplification and switching purposes.
• Used to control motor.
• Employed for impedance buffering.
• Employed to drive loads under 100mA.
• Incorporated in robotics and instrumentation projects.
• Used in H- Bridge circuits and current mirror circuits.
• Used for constructing Astable bistable and Bistable multivibrators.
• Used in comparator and oscillator circuits.

BC558 Physical dimensions

The following figure shows the physical dimensions of the BC558 transistor. I hope you understand what is BC558 transistor and why it is used for. If you are unsure or have any question in your mind, you can leave your comment in the section below, I’ll help you out with the best of my knowledge. Feel free to keep us updated with your valuable suggestions and feedback, they prove handy and help us create quality work as per your requirements. Thank you for reading this article.

Introduction to BC559

Hi Guys! Hope this finds you well. I welcome you on board. Thank you for clicking this read. In this post today, I’ll be explaining the Introduction to BC559. BC559 is a bipolar junction transistor used to drive loads under 100mA. It falls under the family of PNP transistors and is mainly known as a current-controlled device. Where small current at one terminal is used to drive large current change at the remaining two terminals. Read this post all the way through, as I’ll be touching pinout, working, datasheet, physical dimensions, power ratings, and applications of a BC559 transistor. Let’s get started.

Introduction to BC559

• BC559 is a PNP bipolar junction transistor mainly employed for amplification and switching applications.
• It is composed of silicon material and comes in TO-92 packaging. Based on the nature of applications and electronic projects, these transistors are also manufactured in TO-18 configuration.

• BC559 carries three terminals that are emitter, base, and collector. All these terminals are used for external connection with the circuit.

• There are three layers inside the PNP BC559 transistor where one n-doped layer stands between two p-doped layers. Here N layer represents the base terminal that is negative and the remaining two terminals are positive.
• The base terminal is still considered as the main terminal responsible for transistor action.
• Here base terminal controls the number of holes in contrast to the NPN transistor where the base is positive and controls the number of electrons.
• The emitter terminal emits the holes which are then collected by the collector terminal.

BC559 Datasheet

The datasheet gives you an overview of the main characteristics of the component. You can check the datasheet of this tiny component by clicking the link below.

BC559 Pinout

BC559 is incorporated with three terminals named:

• 1: Collector
• 2: Base
• 3: Emitter

The following figure represents BC559 pinout.

• Each terminal carries different doping concentrations and functionality as compared to the remaining two terminals. The emitter side is highly doped in contrast to the other two terminals.

BC559 Working Principle

• The working principle is simple and straight forward. When there is no current present at the base side, the transistor is turned ON and both emitter and collector are forward biased.

• And when current flows from the base terminal, the transistor is turned OFF and both emitter and collector terminals will be reverse biased.

• Though both electrons and holes contribute to conductivity, holes are major carriers in the case of this PNP transistor as opposed to NPN transistors where electrons are major carriers.
• It is important to note that NPN is preferred over PNP transistors for amplification purposes because the mobility of electrons is far better than the mobility of holes.

BC559 Power Ratings

The table given below contains the absolute maximum ratings of the BC559.

Absolute Maximum Ratings BC559
No.	Rating	Symbol	Value	Unit
1	Collector-Emitter Voltage	Vce	30	V
2	Collector-Base Voltage	Vcb	30	V
3	Emitter-Base Voltage	Veb	5	V
4	Collector Current	Ic	100	mA
5	Power Dissipation	Pd	625	mW
6	DC Current Gain	hfe	120 to 800
7	Storage Temperature	Tstg	-55 to 150	C

• Both collector-emitter and collector-base voltage is 30V while emitter-base voltage is 5V indicating the only 5V is required to bias the transistor and start the transistor action.
• The collector current is 100mA means it can support loads under 100mA. Total device dissipation is 625mW and storage junction temperature is -55 to 155 C.
• You need to be very careful while taking these readings into consideration. If ratings exceed the desired ratings, they can terribly affect the device.
• And make sure these ratings you don’t apply for more than the required time, else they hurt the device reliability.

Difference between PNP and NPN Transistors

• Both transistors almost operate in a similar fashion i.e. base is the main terminal responsible for transistor action in both cases and emitter contains the entire current of the transistor.
• And the emitter terminal is highly doped as compared to other terminals in both cases.

• There are, however, some exceptions. The voltage polarities and current directions are reversed in both cases. Current flows from emitter to collector in case of PNP transistors while it moves from collector to emitter in case of NPN transistor.

• The base terminal is negative in PNP transistor while it’s positive in the case of NPN transistor. It acts as a control valve.
• Recall NPN transistors are preferred over PNP transistors for amplification purposes because the mobility of electrons is better than the mobility of holes.
• While base terminal controls the electrons in the case of NPN transistors and it controls the holes in the case of PNP transistors.
• It is important to note that both NPN and PNP transistors are interchangeable given that if a bipolar transistor is composed of two back-to-back diodes with the base terminal being the common terminal.

 

BC559 Alternatives

Following transistors can be used as alternatives to BC559.

• BC859 (SOT-23)
• BC858 (SOT-23)
• BC859W (SOT-323)
• BC858W (SOT-323)

While you aim to incorporate these alternatives into your project, check the pinout of the alternatives as it’s likely the pinout of the BC559 might differ from the pinout of the alternatives.

• Be on the safe side and do your due diligence before starting the project.

Complementary NPN transistors of BC559 are BC546 & BC548.

BC559 Applications

BC559 is used in the following applications.

• Finds applications in current mirror circuits.
• Used in H- Bridge circuits.
• Used for constructing Astable bistable multivibrators.
• Used to drive loads under 100mA.
• Finds application in comparator and oscillator circuits.
• Employed for switching and amplification purpose.
• Incorporated for impedance buffering.

 

BC559 Physical dimensions

BC559 comes in weight approx. 0.18g. The following figure represents the BC559 physical dimensions, helping you evaluate the space given for your project. That was all about Introduction to BC559 transistor. I hope you find this article useful. If you are unsure or have any question, you can approach me in the section below, I’ll help you the best way I can. You are most welcome to pop your valuable feedback and suggestions in the comment section below, they help us produce quality content. Thank you for reading the post.

Introduction to BC560

Hello Friends! Hope this finds you well. I welcome you to another addition to the introduction series. In this post today, I’ll be discussing the Introduction to BC560.

BC560 is a general-purpose transistor mainly used to drive loads under 100mA as it carries collector current 100mA. It falls under the category of PNP transistors and is mainly used for amplification and switching purposes. I suggest you read this entire post as I’ll detail everything about BC560 transistor covering pinout, working, power ratings, applications, and physical dimensions. Continue reading.

Introduction to BC560

• BC560 is a PNP transistor mainly used for switching and amplification purpose. It comes with transition frequency 150MHz and junction temperature of 150 C.
• This PNP transistor contains three pins called emitter, base, and collector. These pins are used for external connections with the electronic circuit. The small current at the base side is used to produce large current change across other terminals.
• BC560 carries three layers where one is the n-doped layer that represents the base terminal and the other two are p-doped layers that represent emitter and collector respectively. The n-doped layer stands between two p-doped layers.

• As this is a PNP transistor, here current flows from emitter to collector as opposed to NPN transistor where current flows from collector to emitter.
• Also, here in PNP transistor holes are majority carriers… even though both electrons and holes play a key role in the conductivity of PNP transistors, here holes are majority carriers in contrast to NPN transistors where electrons are majority carriers.

• In both cases, however, the base terminal is the main component responsible for the overall electron action. Which is positive in the case of NPN transistor and is negative in the case of PNP transistor.
• Moreover, all these terminals are different in terms of their functionality and doping concentrations. The emitter side is more doped as compared to the other two terminals.
• Plus, the emitter terminal contains the overall transistor current. The emitter current is a sum of both collector and base current.

BC560 Datasheet

While scanning the datasheet of the component, you can get a hold of the main characteristics of the component. If you want to download the datasheet of the BC560 transistor, click below.

BC560 Pinout

BC560 carries three main terminals known as: 1: Collector 2: Base 3: Emitter

• These terminals are used for external connection with the circuit.
• The following figure shows the pinout of the BC560 transistor.

• It is wise to pay special heed to the pinout of the transistor before employing it in your project.
• Installing the component with the wrong configuration can damage the component and thus the entire project.

BC560 Working Principle

• The working principle of this PNP transistor is almost similar to NPN. In both cases, the base terminal triggers the transistor action.
• When there is no current available at the base terminal, the transistor is turned ON and both collector and emitter terminals are forward biased.
• And when current flows from the base side, the transistor is turned OFF, indicating both emitter and collector pins are reverse biased.

• It is important to note that… even though NPN and PNP transistors are used for amplification purposes, NPN transistors are preferred over PNP transistors since the mobility of electrons is far better and quicker than the mobility of holes.

BC560 Power Ratings

The table below carries the absolute maximum ratings of the BC560.

Absolute Maximum Ratings BC560
No.	Rating	Symbol	Value	Unit
1	Collector-Emitter Voltage	Vce	45	V
2	Collector-Base Voltage	Vcb	50	V
3	Emitter-Base Voltage	Veb	5	V
4	Collector Current	Ic	100	mA
5	Power Dissipation	Pd	625	mW
6	Transition Frequency	ft	100	MHz
7	Storage Temperature	Tstg	-55 to 150	C

• The collector-emitter and collector-base voltages are 45V & 50V respectively. While emitter-base voltage is 5V that means the only 5V is required to start the transistor action.
• The transition frequency is 100MHz and junction temperature is 150 C. The collector current is 100mA, projecting it can support loads under 100mA.

• These are the stress ratings which if exceed the required ratings, can hurt the device. And if you apply these ratings more than the required time they can damage the device reliability.

Difference between PNP and NPN Transistors

• Both NPN and PNP transistors operate almost in a similar fashion. The base pin is the main terminal that plays a key role in triggering the transistor action in both cases.
• The emitter side is highly doped and contains the entire current of the transistor.
• Voltage polarities and current directions create a difference between both NPN and PNP transistors.
• Current flows from collector to emitter in case of NPN transistor while it flows from emitter to collector in case of PNP transistors. The base is negative in PNP transistor while it’s positive in the case of NPN transistor.

• Recall, mobility of electrons is better than the mobility of holes, the reason NPN are preferred over PNP for amplification purposes.
• The base terminal acts as a control value in both cases where it controls the holes in PNP transistor and it controls the electrons in case of NPN transistor.

• Note that, both PNP and NPN transistors are interchangeable only if a bipolar junction transistor is made up of two back-to-back diodes with the base terminal as the common terminal.

 

BC560 Alternatives

The following are the SMD alternatives of BC560:

• BC860W (SOT-323)
• BC857W (SOT-323)
• BC857 (SOT-23)
• BC860 (SOT-23)

The complementary NPN to the BC560 transistor is BC550.

BC560 Applications

BC560 can be employed in the following applications.

• Used in current mirror circuits.
• Used for switching and amplification purpose.
• Employed for constructing Astable bistable multivibrators.
• Employed for impedance buffering.
• Incorporated to drive loads under 100mA.
• Finds applications in H- Bridge circuits.
• Used in comparator and oscillator circuits.

BC560 Physical dimensions

The following figure represents the physical dimensions of the transistor BC560. While getting a hold of these dimensions you can evaluate the space required for your entire electrical project. That’s all for today. I hope you’ve got a clear insight into the Introduction to BC560 transistor. If you have any question, you can pop your query in the section below, I’ll help you the best way I can. You are most welcome to share your valuable feedback and suggestions in the comment section below, they help us produce quality content. Thank you for reading the article.

Introduction to BC517

Hi folks! Hope you’re well today. I welcome you on board. In this post today, I’ll detail the complete Introduction to BC517. BC517 is an NPN bipolar junction transistor made up of silicon material and comes in a TO-92 package. It carries collector-current 1A, projecting it can drive loads under 1A. Total power dissipation is 625mW, indicating it releases power around 625mW while working. Collector-emitter and collector-base voltages are 30 and 40 respectively. The emitter-base voltage is 10V which means it requires only 10V to trigger the electron action inside the transistor. Read this post all the way through as I’ll be documenting pinout, working, power ratings, alternatives, applications, and physical dimensions of transistor BC517. Let’s get started.

Introduction to BC517

• BC517 is a bipolar junction transistor that belongs to the NPN transistor family. It comes in the TO-92 package and is composed of silicon material.
• It contains three pins known as collector, base, and emitter. The small input current at the base side is used to produce large current at the remaining two terminals. This phenomenon is used for amplification purposes.
• BC517 comes with three layers where two are n-doped layers and one is a p-doped layer that stands between the two n-doped layers. The p-doped layer represents the base terminal which is positive while the other two terminals are negative.

• One important feature that makes this transistor unique is its high amplification factor. It carries the current gain or amplification factor around 30,000.
• The amplification factor is the capacity of any transistor it can amplify the input current. Simply put, the factor by which the current at the base terminal is amplified at the other two terminals.

BC517 Datasheet

• Before working with any component, it is wise to get a hold of the datasheet of that component that highlights the main characteristic of the device, helping you better understand the component.
• Click below to download the datasheet of the transistor BC517.

BC517 Pinout

The BC517 comes with three pins called: 1: Collector 2: Base 3: Emitter The following figure shows the pinout of BC517.

• These are also called transistor terminals that are mainly used for external connection with the electrical circuit. All these pins are different in terms of functionality and doping concentration.
• Both base and collector terminals are less doped compared to the emitter terminal. Plus, the emitter terminal carries the 100% transistor current. It is a sum of both base and collector current.

BC517 Pin Configuration

BC517 transistor comes in the following three main configurations: 1: Common emitter configuration 2: Common collector configuration 3: Common base configuration

• Common emitter configuration carries the suitable voltage and current ratings required for amplification purposes. The reasons this configuration is preferred for amplification over the remaining two configurations.
• The amplification factor or current gain is an important factor of the transistor that mainly projects the capacity of any transistor it can amplify the current. It is denoted by ß.
• In BC517, the amplification factor is 30,000 which is far high than other transistors in the market. It is a ratio between output energy and input energy i.e. ratio between collector current and the base current.

• The current gain is another important factor used to describe the nature of the transistor. It is denoted by a and is known as alpha. It is a ratio between collector current and emitter current. The alpha value is always less than 1, commonly stands from 0.5 to 1.

BC517 Working Principle

• The base side is the key terminal responsible for the overall transistor action. The base terminal gets biased when a voltage is applied to this terminal.
• The base terminal acts like an electron valve that controls the number of electrons passing through the base pin. The base terminal operates similarly in the PNP transistor but here it controls the number of holes passing through it.
• During the amplification process, the small current at the base side is amplified and produced across the other terminals.

• And when BC517 acts like a switch, it converts the small current available at one side of the transistor into a larger current across the other terminals of the transistor.
• As this is an NPN transistor, here the base terminal is positive with respect to the emitter side and the emitter voltage is less positive than the collector voltage.

Moreover, the collector terminal is laced with the resistor to limit the flow of current.

BC517 Power Ratings

The following table shows the absolute maximum ratings of transistor BC517.

Absolute Maximum Ratings BC517
No.	Rating	Symbol	Value	Unit
1	Collector-Emitter Voltage	Vce	30	V
2	Collector-Base Voltage	Vcb	40	V
3	Emitter-Base Voltage	Veb	10	V
4	Collector Current	Ic	1	A
5	Current Gain	hfe	30,000
6	Power Dissipation	Pd	625	mW
7	Storage Temperature	Tstg	-55 to 150	C

• Collector-emitter and collector-base voltages are 30 & 40 respectively. While the emitter-base voltage is 10V i.e. it needs 10V to start the electron action in the transistor.
• The power dissipation is 625mW and junction temperature varies from -55C to 150C. The collector-current is 1A which means it can drive loads under 1A.
• Be careful while considering these ratings as ratings above these absolute maximum ratings can adversely affect the performance of the component. Also, don’t apply these ratings for more than the required time, else it might affect the device reliability.

BC517 Alternatives

The PNP complementary to BC517 is BC516.

BC517 Applications

It is used in the following applications.

• Used for amplification and switching purposes.
• Used in sensor circuits.
• Employed as an audio preamplifier and amplifier stages.
• Can drive loads under 1A.
• Used in battery chargers.
• Used in H-bridge and Astable and Bistable multivibrators.
• Used to control motor.

 

BC517 Physical dimensions

The following diagram shows the physical dimensions of transistor BC517. It will help you identify the space required for your electrical project. That’s all for today. I hope you find this article useful. If you have any queries, you can pop your question in the section below and I’ll try my best to help you the best way I can. Moreover, share your feedback and suggestions in the section below, they help us produce quality work. Thanks for reading this post.

Introduction to BC557

Hi Guys! Hope you’re well. I welcome you on board. Thank you for viewing this read. In this post today, I’ll walk you through the Introduction to BC557. BC557 is a bipolar junction transistor with DC current gain 300. It falls under the category of PNP transistors where one N-doped layer stands between the two P-doped layers. The continuous collector current is 100mA means it can drive load under 100mA. BC557 comes in the TO-92 package and is mainly used for switching and amplification purpose. Before I bore you to tears, let’s dive in and read the complete introduction to BC557 covering datasheet, pinout, working principle, power ratings, physical dimensions, and applications. Continue reading.

Introduction to BC557

• BC557 is a bipolar junction transistor that falls under the family of PNP transistors.
• As this is a PNP transistor, there will be no current at the base terminal when the transistor is turned ON and in that case, both emitter and collector will be forward biased.
• And when voltage is applied at the base terminal, the transistor is turned OFF and both emitter and collector will be reverse biased.

• It carries three terminals called collector, base, and emitter that are commonly used for external connection with the electronic circuit.
• All these terminals are different in terms of their size and doping concentration. The emitter is highly doped against both collector and emitter terminals.

• BC557 contains there layers i.e. two p-doped layers and one n-doped layer. The n-doped layer lies between the two p-doped layers. Here the base terminal is negative while emitter and collector will be positive.
• The maximum collector current is 100mA indicating we cannot drive loads through the transistor that utilizes more than 100mA current.
• It is mainly used for amplification purposes. Amplification is the process by which transistor boosts the small input voltage into a large output voltage i.e. small audio signal will be amplified into a large audio signal.

BC557 Datasheet

If you want to download the BC557 datasheet, click the link given below. This will help you understand the main characteristics of the BC557 transistor.

BC557 Pinout

BC557 contains three terminals that are known as:

• 1: Collector
• 2: Base
• 3: Emitter

The following figure shows the pinout of BC557. As this is a PNP transistor, here current flows from emitter to collector and base controls the amount of current. And you may know already, in PNP transistor current flows in through the collector terminal and it drains out through emitter terminal.

BC557 Working Principle

• In PNP transistor holes are majority carriers as opposed to NPN transistors where electrons are majority carriers. Although holes are majority carriers, the base terminal still plays a key role in the overall action of the transistor.

• Now holes are emitted from the emitter instead of electrons in the NPN case, and they are collectors by collector terminal.

• BC557 is called the current controlled device where small current present at the base side is used to control the large current at the remaining terminals.
• Recall, when the transistor is turned OFF there is a current at the base side and when the transistor is turned ON there is no current present at the base terminal.

BC557 Power Ratings

The following table represents the absolute maximum ratings of BC557.

Absolute Maximum Ratings BC557
No.	Rating	Symbol	Value	Unit
1	Collector-Emitter Voltage	Vce	45	V
2	Collector-Base Voltage	Vcb	50	V
3	Emitter-Base Voltage	Veb	5	V
4	Collector Current	Ic	100	mA
5	Power Dissipation	Ptot	500	mW
6	Peak Collector Current	Icm	200	mA
7	Junction Temperature	Tstg	150	C

• The transistor’s amplification capacity is determined by the amplification factor that is a ratio between collector current and emitter current. It exhibits the actual value of the current or input audio signal that the transistor can amplify.
• Make sure, these ratings remain under control and don’t exceed the recommended values.
• If values surpass the standard values, they can affect the overall performance of the component, and thus damage the project you’re working on.
• Also, if these ratings are applied with maximum time, they can ultimately affect device reliability.

Difference between PNP and NPN Transistors

• Though both transistors are used for amplification and switching purposes, there are few exceptions.
• In PNP transistor, the current flows from the emitter side to the collector side and in case of NPN transistor current flows from collector to emitter, however, in both cases, the base is the main terminal that controls the amount of current.

• In PNP transistors, base controls the number of holes and in NPN it controls the number of electrons. As conductivity is carried out by electrons in NPN transistors, they prove handier for amplification purposes compared to PNP transistors because the mobility of electrons is far better and quicker than the movement of holes in PNP transistors.
• In PNP transistor the base side is negative compared to both emitter and collector while in case of NPN transistor base side is positive compared to remaining terminals.
• The emitter terminal is both cases is highly doped and carries the 100% current of the transistor.
• Both NPN and PNP transistors are different in terms of the applied source voltage.

In PNP transistor source voltage is applied across the emitter terminal and in case of NPN transistor it is applied at the collector side.

BC557 Alternatives

BC557 equivalent alternatives are:

• BC558
• BD140
• TIP42
• BC157
• S8550
• 2N3906
• 2SA1943
• TIP127

It’s wise to check the pinout of the alternatives before installing them into your electrical project as it’s likely the pinout of the alternatives may differ from the pinout of the BC557. Better do your due diligence beforehand.

BC557 Applications

BC557 is used in the following application:

• Used for switching and amplification purpose
• Used to drive load under 100mA
• Employed in robotics and instrumentation projects
• Used in motors for controlling current

BC557 Physical dimensions

The following figure shows the physical dimensions of BC557 to help you evaluate the desired space of your electronic project. That’s all about Introduction to BC557. I hope you like this post. If you have anything to add, you can share your insight in the section below. And if you need my technical help regarding the usage of this component in your project, I’m available to help you the best way I can. Thank you for reading this post.

Introduction to BC337

Hi Friends! Hope you’re well today. I welcome you on board. In this post today, I’ll walk you through the Introduction to BC337. BC337 is a general-purpose transistor mainly used for lower power audio amplification and switching purposes. It belongs to the NPN transistor family and comes with a maximum gain of 630. The continuous collector current is 800mA indicating it can drive loads under 800mA. I’ll be discussing the complete introduction to BC337 in this post covering pinout, working, power ratings, alternatives, applications, and physical dimensions of BC337. Stay tuned.

Introduction to BC337

• BC337 is an NPN transistor mainly used for lower power audio amplification and switching purposes.
• It contains three terminals known as emitter, base, and collector. The small current chance at the base side is used to produce large current change at the remaining terminals. This phenomenon is used for amplification purposes.
• BC337 comes with three layers i.e. one p-doped layer and two n-doped layers. The p-doped layer is sandwiched between two n-doped layers. The base terminal is positive and the remaining two terminals are negative.

• As this is an NPN transistor the main charge carriers would be electrons. Although both electrons and holes take part in conductivity, electrons are major carries in this case as opposed to PNP transistors where holes are major carriers.
• It is important to note that NPN transistors are preferred over PNP transistors because the mobility of electrons is far better and quicker than the mobility of holes. In some cases, a combination of both NPN and PNP transistors is used in an electrical project.

• In this NPN transistor current flows from collector to emitter in contrast to PNP transistor where current flows from emitter to collector. In both cases, however, the base terminal is the main component responsible for the overall transistor action.
• When voltage is applied at the base terminal it gets biased and the emitter terminal starts emitting the electrons which are then controlled by the base terminals and thus collected by the collector terminal.

BC337 Datasheet

Before employing any component into your project, it’s always wise to scan the datasheet that helps you better understand the characteristics of the component. Click below to download the datasheet of BC337.

BC337 Pinout

The following figure shows the BC337 pinout diagram. BC337 comes with three terminals called: 1: Collector 2: Base 3: Emitter

• All these terminals are mainly used for external connection with the electronic circuit. All these terminals are different in terms of their functionality and doping concentration.
• The emitter terminal is highly doped as compared to the remaining two terminals. And the emitter terminal encompasses the entire current of the transistor. The emitter current is a sum of collector current and base current.

BC337 Pin Configuration

BC337 is mainly used in three configurations as follow: 1: Common emitter configuration 2: Common collector configuration 3: Common base configuration

• Common emitter configuration carries the suitable voltage and current ratings needed for amplification purposes. This configuration is used for amplification purposes.
• The amplification factor demonstrates the nature of amplification. It is a ratio between collector current and base current and is denoted by ß.

• The current gain is another important factor that is a ratio between collector current and emitter current. It is denoted by a and is known as alpha. The alpha value lies from 0.95 to 0.99 but mostly its value is taken as unity.

BC337 Working Principle

• The base terminal plays a key role in starting the overall transistor action. When the voltage is applied at the base side, it gets biased and starts the electron action in the transistor. The base side actually acts like a control value that controls the electrons emitting from the emitter terminal which are then collected by the collector side.

• The small current at the base terminal is used to control large current at the remaining two terminals. This process is used in amplification purposes.
• BC337 also acts as a switch. When it acts as a switch, it converts the small current present at the one terminal side into a much larger current across the remaining transistor terminals.
• The base pin is positive with respect to both emitter and collector terminals. While the voltage at the collector side is always positive with respect to the emitter pin.
• The resistor is employed at the collector side to control the flow of current.

 

BC337 Power Ratings

The following table represents the absolute maximum ratings of the component BC337.

Absolute Maximum Ratings BC337
No.	Rating	Symbol	Value	Unit
1	Collector-Emitter Voltage	Vce	45	V
2	Collector-Base Voltage	Vcb	50	V
3	Emitter-Base Voltage	Veb	5	V
4	Collector Current	Ic	800	mA
5	Current Gain	hfe	100 to 630
6	Transition Frequency	ft	100	MHz
7	Storage Temperature	Tstg	-55 to 150	C

• The collector-emitter voltage is 45V and the collector-base voltage is 50V. While the emitter-base voltage is 5V. The transition frequency is 100MHz.

• These are the stress ratings. Make sure these ratings don’t surpass the absolute maximum ratings, else they can damage the component and thus the entire project.
• Also, if these ratings are applied more than the required time, they can damage the device reliability.

BC337 Alternatives

The following transistors can be used as a replacement to BC337. The SMD alternatives of the BC337 are

• 2SC3912 (SOT-23)
• 2SC3914 (SOT-23)
• BCX19 (SOT-23).
• 2SC3913 (SOT-23)
• BC817 (SOT-23)
• 2SC3915 (SOT-23)

It is wise to evaluate the pinout of the alternatives used for the project because it’s likely the pinout of the BC337 may differ from the pinout of the alternatives. Do your due diligence to avoid any hassle later.

• The PNP complementary to BC337 is BC327.

BC337 Applications

The following are some applications of the transistor BC337.

• Used for switching and amplification purpose.
• Employed in electronic motors to control current.
• Used in the push button.
• Employed in robotics and instrumentation.
• Used in Darlington pair circuits.
• Employed in Astable and Bistable multivibrators.

 

BC337 Physical dimensions

The following figure shows the physical dimensions of the component BC337. It will help you audit the space required for the component before incorporating it into your project. This is it. I hope you’ve got a clear insight into the component BC337. If you have any question regarding BC337, you can pop your question in the comment below, I’d love to help you the best way I can. You are most welcome to share your valuable suggestions and feedback in the section below, they assist us to create quality content. Thank you for reading this post.

Analog Vibration Sensor Library for Proteus

Hi Guys! Glad to see you here. I welcome you on board. In this post today, I’ll be discussing Analog Vibration Sensor Library for Proteus. I have already shared the digital Vibration Sensor Library for Proteus, you should check that as well. I’ve been adding brand new libraries for proteus covering sensors and Arduino boards. I’ve recently discussed Analog PIR Sensor Library for Proteus and Analog Flex Sensor Library for Proteus. You may be stuck into thinking I’ve previously shared those libraries but they were libraries covering digital PIR and digital Flex sensors, here we discussed analog libraries for both PIR and Flex sensors. Before I pen down how to download and simulate Analog Vibration Sensor Library for Proteus, let’s discuss what is vibration sensor first. A vibration sensor is mainly used to monitor the vibration of industrial machines. It is also called a piezoelectric that plays a crucial role in the proper working of industrial machinery. If vibration values increase from the industry standards, they can severely affect the overall working of the machine and in the worst case can put the machine at a grinding halt. To avoid this, we use vibration sensors that give the warning signal if vibration exceeds the desired values. These sensors are attached to the alarm system that produces audible sound indicating the machine is in danger, thus results in the deactivation of the entire machine. Vibration sensors are based on the piezoelectric effect to observe the small changes in pressure, acceleration, force, and temperature. These changes are converted into an electrical signal. Air fragrance can also be monitored by vibration sensors. They monitor the air fragrance and detect its capacitance and quality. I hope you’ve got a clear idea about the vibration sensor now we’ll download and run the Analog Vibration Library for Proteus. I’ve added both a simple simulation of the vibration sensor and a simulation with the Arduino Board. Let’s get started.

Analog Vibration Sensor Library for Proteus

• Click the link given below to download the Analog Vibration Sensor Library for Proteus.
• As you download this file, it returns further two files named Proteus Library and Proteus Simulations.

Analog Vibration Sensor Library for Proteus Click the Proteus Library folder that contains four files as follow:

• VibrationSensorAnalogTEP.HEX
• VibrationSensorTEP.HEX
• VibrationSensorTEP.IDX
• VibrationSensorTEP

Now copy all files given above and place them into the library folder of your Proteus software.  

• In case you don’t have proteus software in your system, you can read this post covering how to download and install proteus software.
• After adding the above files, start the proteus software and if it’s already running, close the software and restart again.
• Now click the ‘P’ button to search for the ‘analog vibration sensor’ libraries that you’ve recently placed.

• As you search it, it will return the figure as given below:

• Select the sensor and click OK. Now you’ll see your cursor has now started blinking with the sensor that shows you can place your analog vibration sensor anywhere in the workspace available on the proteus software.
• As you place your sensor, it will show the figure below:

Now we'll look into the analog vibration sensor pinout.

Vibration Sensor Pinout

The vibration analog sensor contains 4 pins as follows.

• OUT = First is an OUT pin that is connected with a voltmeter that represents the output voltage against the variable resistor attached to the TestPin.
• GND = Second is a ground pin that is attached to ground voltage.
• Vcc = Third is the voltage supply pin that gets 5V to power the vibration sensor.
• TestPin = Forth is the TestPin. This pin is only available in the proteus simulation. You don’t find it on the analog vibration sensor in real. When this pin is LOW, it shows no vibration and when this pin is HIGH it represents the vibration on the machine.

Adding HEX File

Now we’ll add the HEX file to run our vibration sensor simulation. Right-click the sensor and reach the ‘edit properties’ option and double-click the sensor it will pop up the same edit properties panel. Browse the Sensor’s HEX file option and look for the HEX file. You can find the HEX file in the library folder. Same HEX file that we have recently placed in the library folder. Select this HEX file and click OK. Now we’ll attach a simple circuit with the vibration sensor to run our simulation.

LC Circuit

• We need to design a simple circuit to run this sensor in the proteus workspace. We’ve designed and attached the LC circuit with the OUT pin of the vibration sensor.
• And TestPin is connected with a variable resistor. Both variable resistance and voltage we get on the voltmeter attached with the OUT pin are inversely proportional to each other.

• When variable resistance is set to the maximum value the voltage on the voltmeter will be zero and when variable resistance is set to the minimum value (zero) it shows the maximum voltage i.e. 4.98V on the voltmeter.

When you run the simulation it will return the result below:

• You can see the voltage appearing on the left vibration sensor placed on the proteus workspace is 2.56V because TestPin attached with the variable resistor is set to almost half of the resistance value.
• I told you earlier I’ll show you both simple simulation and the vibration sensor simulation with the Arduino Board. If you are interested in the Arduino Library for Proteus, check this post where I have added six Arduino Boards Libraries for Proteus.

Now connect the voltage on the OUT pin with the analog pin i.e. A0 of the Arduino Board: When variable resistance is maximum the voltage on the voltmeter will be zero and its equivalent analog value across LCD attached with the Arduino Board will be 0019 and when the resistance on the variable resistor is minimum the voltage will be 4.98V and its equivalent analog value on the LCD will be 1019. This is it. I hope, you’ve got a clear insight into how to download Analog Vibration Sensor Library for Proteus. If you have any questions, you can ask me in the comment section below. I’d love to help you with the best of my expertise. Feel free to pop your suggestions about the libraries you think should be included in the proteus library database, I’ll design and add them to the database. Thank you for reading this article.

Smart Energy Engineering Drives Manufacturing Growth

Hi Friends! Hope you're well today. I welcome you on board. In this post today, I'll walk you through how smart energy engineering drives manufacturing growth. Human life on earth has never seen more development it has experienced in the past 100-years. Nowadays, manufacturing is based on smart tech-oriented engineering. This guarantees quality productions in the minimum time possible. According to the British newspaper Yorkshire Post, a new $252m Siemens manufacturing site in the UK is a poster-boy for this new trend of super high tech combined with manufacturing. Innovative digital engineering solutions play a key role in upscaling these companies with modern-day technology that gets rid of older, classic manufacturing techniques and provides a cleaner, safer, and faster way of manufacturing goods.

Futuristic ovens

Needless to say, industrial ovens are necessary for manufacturing purposes. The creation of industrial ovens scalable to fit the industry's precise demands are prerequisites for the required airflow for the job, the type of energy used, and the lifespan of production. You know it already if industrial machinery misses the mark and fails to meet the industry standards, this can terribly impact the overall production. The reason, you need advanced machinery equipped with cutting-edge technology to grow your revenue skyrocket. These ovens are part and parcel of manufacturing with outstanding results in both the simple drying process and hydrogen de-embrittlement. Soon, innovators are expecting to use solar energy to power such ovens. In November 2019, CNN reported on a breakthrough made by Bill Gates’ secretive energy start-up that it had managed to concentrate heat in one area. Scaling down of this technology could be a further boon to an industry that helps tackle energy concerns with full control.

Further energy storage

These systems may well be expensive, but new technology is proving fruitful for energy storage and movement. And based on result-driven and swift processes, you will surely admit, they totally worth it. According to The Independent, breakthroughs in battery manufacturing have made Li-ion batteries 90% cheaper in material costs – also a sustainability saving – and have made manufacturing far easier. This will have far-reaching implications for manufacturing businesses across numerous sectors, particularly the car industry including EV, hybrid, or CEV. Furthermore, by using a chemical resin instead of heavy metals, these batteries degrade slower and have a lessened environmental impact, leaving your atmosphere with no toxic gases. They could lead to a serious overhaul in how manufacturing is done from the energy management perspective.

A reduction in waste

Energy-saving at the front-end is great and it is equally important in tuning energy usage to encompass largely green fuels. There remains, however, the question of waste. According to industry consultants Enel, significant energy is lost in the processing of manufacturer lines that are often uncovered at a later date in efficiency programs. However, they will go missing for years in the meanwhile, and this necessitates savings to be made elsewhere. One such way is through turning waste once again into energy. It comes with two benefits; first, if energy is wasted it’s less impactful as there is a zero-sum game; second, it creates efficiencies for manufacturers that can help against the impact of hidden problems in their assembly line. Finding a way to harness waste and turn it into energy should be a primary concern for manufacturers, both in environmental and cost-saving ways, and there are methods out there that may prove helpful for energy conservation.

The Icelandic method

Iceland is renowned for its use of geothermal energy which, according to IRENA, produces just 3% of the emissions that equivalent energy-producing operations will create. Despite this, the island nation is not contented on its laurels and manufacturers, the reason they have come together to look at turning waste into energy. The result is a program of gasification run by the University of Iceland. The main aim is to look at waste from all areas of manufacturing and day-to-day life and turn the waste materials and energy (in the form of heat, light, and emissions) back into useful energy by capturing and re-introducing materials to the manufacturing process. While still a relatively ‘dirty’ process – these are, ultimately, fossil fuels and bio-energy – this can represent a ‘closed-loop’ on emissions for manufacturing businesses and the opportunity to make the most out of every single piece of work. In turn, this reduces the amount of wastage at every stage of production.

Moving to clean processes

Long-term businesses must look to move away from all dirty and inefficient fuels and turn toward more clean and effective alternatives. Much of this is being completed already by private energy firms. Forbes estimates that fossil fuel usage will reduce from 82% of current global consumption to 60% by 2040 and this rate will be much higher in developed countries compared to third-world countries. In the USA, regardless of political pressure, energy companies are investing heavily in renewables that are becoming a part of the energy grid. While effective work can be done on the factory floor to clean energy compliance, regulators are doing great work to bridge that gap and ensure a much cleaner environment.

Future: the hydrogen solution

Hydrogen is a volatile energy that carries plenty of risk in the manufacturing process. According to engineering mag The Engineer, it could be the next big breakthrough – and one that is more palatable to the public than controversial nuclear energy. Scale-able hydrogen operations that pluck energy out of the air are springing up across the world and are, crucially, scale-able – they could find their way onto the site of manufacturing premises.   Hydrogen is, no doubt, inherently dangerous and carries a lot of risks, however with the help of advanced technology its impact can be reduced; for instance, some units have safety systems that rapidly turn Hydrogen stocks into oxygen if a dangerous situation arises. Clean and safe energy with the tendency of conversion is arguably the future fuel for manufacturing. This also leads to a clean and secure environment. Clean energy with large-scale manufacturing is the dream for both businesses and consumers. If engineers continue to focus on clean energy solutions for manufacturing, it will benefit both industry and environment that guarantees maximum production requiring less labor force.