The Engineering Projects

Introduction to CR2032

Hey Guys! Hope you are doing well. Welcome you onboard. Today, I'll discuss the details on the Introduction to CR2032 Battery. It is known as a coin cell or button cell that comes in cylindrical form and is mainly used in pocket calculators, wrist watches, artificial cardiac pacemakers, hearing aids, and automobile key-less entry transmitters. Low self-discharge and an ability to retain a charge for a long time make this device a good pick for high power devices. More often than not, it is called a lithium energizer where high capacity is a major concern. It falls under the category of disposable primary cells, where common cathode material is a silver oxide, manganese dioxide, or carbon monofluoride and common anode materials are zinc or lithium. In this post, I'll try to cover each and everything related to CR2032, so you don't need to wrestle your mind browsing a whole internet and find all information in one place. Let's jump right in and get down to the major details on this tiny device.

Introduction to CR2032

• CR2032 is a coin cell battery, also known as lithium energizer, that is mainly used in high power devices such as hearing aids, glucose monitors and automobile keyless entry transmitters.
• It provides a long service life to the devices it is incorporated in, allowing them to cover it by making a solid cylindrical shape. It can withstand high temperatures ranging from -22 to 140 F and can hold a bunch of power, enough to retain the charge for almost full 8 years.
• High capacity makes it a good replacement for BR2032, 5004LC, DL2032, and ECR2032.
• It is advised to keep this device away from the hunting eyes of kids, as swallowing it may cause serious injury or death in some cases due to chemical burns.

• Battery compartments are mainly used to keep the device safe and away from the children. These compartments can be shaped using two methods: an external mechanical tool like a screwdriver or coin is needed to unlock the battery compartment or using spare hand by applying two independent movements of the securing mechanism. They are designed in a way that can house a variety of cells where capacities will vary by size.
• The point worth mentioning here is that these Coin Lithium Cells are not interchangeable, however, thickness and diameter can be modified based on the cell designation.

CR2032 Features

Following are the main features of CR2032.

Classification	Coin Cell Battery or Lithium Energizer
Product Name	CR2032
Output Voltage	3V
Chemical System	Lithium / Manganese Dioxide (Li/MnO2)
Capacity	235 mAh
Energy Density	198 milliwatt hr/g
Weight	3 gram
Lithium Content	0.109 grams
Self Discharge	1% / year
Type	Non-Rechargeable
Maximum Operating Temperature	70 °C
Minimum Operating Temperature	-30 °C

 

• Some cells made from different chemical compositions are mechanically interchangeable that can directly relate to the voltage stability and service cell life.
• Be careful while selecting the coin cell for a relevant device, wrong selection can severely affect the device performance, resulting in short life or hindrance in the operating process.

CR2032 Dimensions

The following figure shows the dimensions of CR2032.

• The dimensions are given in mm vs inches.
• These dimensions are specific to the CR2032 battery, however, these Coin Cells come in a variety of dimensions and are used as per technical needs and requirements.

CR2032 Applications

CR2032 are used in a wide range of applications and can easily adjust in the hard to reach places due to its smaller size. Following are the major applications of CR2032.

• Wrist-watches
• Toys and games
• Pocket calculators
• Heart-rate monitors
• Artificial cardiac pacemakers
• Glucose monitors
• Implantable cardiac defibrillators
• Hearing aids
• Keyless entry transmitters

That's all for today. I hope I have given you everything you needed to known about CR2032 battery. If you are unsure or have any question, you can comment me in the section below. I'll try and help you according to the best of my knowledge. You are most welcome to feed us with your valuable feedback and suggestions, they keep you in a constant loop and help us provide you quality work as per your demands. Thanks for reading the article.

Introduction to IRF3205

Hi Fellas! I am back to give you a daily dose of valuable information. Today, I'll give you a detailed Introduction to IRF3205. It is an N-Channel HEXFET Power MOSFET that comes in a TO-220AB package and operates on 55V and 110A. It is mainly used for dynamic dv/dt rating and consumer full bridge applications. Additionally, it falls under the category of ultra LOW on-resistance devices based on Advanced Process Technology, making it a building block of the electronic applications where fast switching is a major concern. In this post, I'll cover each and everything related to this transistor, its main features, working, pinout, and applications. Let's get down to the nitty-gritty of this tiny component.

Introduction to IRF3205

• IRF3205 is an N-Channel HEXFET Power MOSFET that is mainly based on Advanced Process Technology and used for fast switching purpose.
• International Rectifier has introduced this device with the aim to generate extremely low on-resistance per silicon area.
• This power MOSFET is known as the voltage controlled device that mainly contains three terminals called:
  • Drain
  • Gate
  • Source

• The voltage at Gate Terminal is used to handle the conductivity on other two terminals.
• The low thermal resistance and operating temperature around 175°C make this device an ideal choice for commercial industrial applications, providing power dissipation of around 50 watts.

• This Power MOSFET differs from the normal MOSFET, where former comes with gate layered with thick oxide and can experience high input voltage while the later comes with thin gate oxide without the ability to withstand high voltage i.e. applying high voltage will drastically affect the overall performance of the device.
• It features benchmark high package current ratings - appropriate for high power DC motors, power tools, and industrial applications.

IRF3205 Pinout

• IRF3205 Pinout consists of 3 Pins in total.
• All these pins, along with their name & type are shown in below table:

IRF3205 Pinout
Pin#	Name	Symbol	Type	Function
1	Gate	G	P-Type	Controls the current between Drain & Source
2	Drain	D	N-Type	Electrons Emitter
3	Source	S	N-Type	Electrons Collector

• Movement of electrons plays an important role in the current flowing from drain to source terminal.
• The output current is highly dependent on the voltage applied to the gate terminal.

Working

• The gate, source and drain in this MOSFET are analogous to the base, collector, and emitter in the BJT (Bipolar Junction Transistors)
• The source and drain are made up of n-type material while component body and the substrate is made up of p-type material.
• Adding silicon dioxide on the substrate layer gives this device a metal oxide semiconductor construction.
• It is a unipolar device where conduction is carried out by the movement of electrons.
• An insulating layer is inserted in the device that makes gate terminals separated from the entire body. The region between drain and source is called N-channel that is controlled by the voltage present at the gate terminal.
• MOSFET stays ahead of the curve when they are compared to BJT as the former needs no input current to control a large amount of current on remaining two terminals.

• Applying a positive voltage at this MOS structure will change the charge distribution in the semiconductor where holes present under the oxide layer deal with the force, allowing the holes to move downward.
• It is important to note that, the bound negative charges are connected with acceptors atoms that are mainly responsible for flocking the depletion region.
• The electrons, if applied with abundance, will help in increasing the overall channel conductivity, changing the substrate into the N-type material.

IRF3205 Proteus Simulation

• As I have told you earlier, IRF3205 is an N-channel Mosfet used for fast switching, that's why it's an ideal selection for designing H-Bridge.
• I have designed this Proteus Simulation where I have converted DC voltage into AC and if you look at it closely then I have used IRF3205 MOSFET in the H-Bridge:

• Moreover, I have used IRF5210 for the counter P-Type Mostel in H-Bridge.
• If you run your simulation then you will get AC sine wave in your oscilloscope, as shown in below figure:

• You can download this simulation by clicking the below button:

Download Proteus Simulation

IRF3205 Features

• Dynamic dv/dt Rating
• N Channel power MOSFET
• 55V, 110A
• TO-220
• 175°C Operating Temperature
• Fully Avalanche Rated
• Ultra Low On-Resistance
• Advanced Process Technology
• Fast Switching

IFR3205 Absolute Maximum Ratings

Following figures shows the absolute maximum ratings of IRF3205.

• These are the stress ratings that are important for the execution of the electronic circuit. If these stress ratings are exceeded from absolute maximum ratings, they can affect the overall nature and performance of the project, resulting in keeping your project in a total stall.
• Similarly, if these ratings are applied for the maximum period of time above normal operating conditions they can affect the reliability of the device.
• It is preferred to get a hold of these ratings before placing the device in the circuit, making sure if it undergoes the same operating conditions and stress ratings as provided by the manufacturer.

Applications

• Fast switching applications
• Consumer Full-Bridge
• Industrical and Commercial applications
• Full-Bridge
• Push-Pull

That's all for today. I hope I have given you everything you needed to know about IRF3205. If you are unsure or have any question, you can ask me in the comment section below. I'd love to help you in any way I can. Feel free to keep us updated with your valuable feedback and suggestions - they help us provide you quality work as per your needs and requirements. Thanks for reading the article.

Introduction to IRF4905

Hey Guys! Welcome you onboard. Today, I'll discuss the details on the Introduction to IRF4905. It is a P-Channel HEXFET Power MOSFET available in a TO-220AB package and is based on Advanced Process Technology. It is mainly used for fast switching purpose, capable of providing ultra-low on-resistance. This tiny device comes with three terminals called gate, drain and source where the gate terminal is used to control the current on remaining two terminals. The area between source and drain is known as a channel that is widely dependent on the voltage applied to the gate terminal. In this post, I'll cover each and everything related to this P channel MOSFET, its main features, working, pinout and applications. Let's jump right in and explore everything you need to know.

Introduction to IRF4905

• IRF4905 is a P-Channel HEXFET Power MOSFET available in a TO-220AB package and is based on Advanced Process Technology.
• It comes with three main terminals called drain, gate and source that are analogous to the emitter, base, and collector in the BJT (Bipolar Junction Transistors)
• It is a unipolar device where only one charge carriers i.e. holes are responsible for the current conduction.
• There are two types of MOSFET available for the development of electronic projects i.e. P channel and N channel both make use of single charge carriers where former contain holes as the major charge carriers and later contain electrons as the major charge carriers.

• This device falls under the category of Power MOSFET, different from normal MOSFET, where former contains thick gate oxide that can withstand high input voltage while the later comes with thin gate oxide, making it unable to bear high input voltage.

Working of IRF4905

• In this MOSFET transistor, gate plays a vital role to handle the conductivity in the channel between drain and source. As it is a P-Channel - holes will be responsible for the current conduction.
• In this components, the body and substrate are composed of N-type material while the drain and source are composed of P-type material - Laying out an exact oppositive composition as compared to N-Channel MOSFET.
• Following figure shows the internal construction of IRF4905.

• Applying negative voltage at the gate terminal will move the oxide layer downward in the substrate layer with a strong repulsive force, allowing positive holes to be accumulated around the gate region.
• The negative voltage applied at the gate terminal attracts the holes, helping to produce the p-type conducting channel using n-type substrate material.

IRF4905 Pinout

Following figure shows the pinout of IRF4905.

IRF 4905 Features

• Dynamic dv/dt rating
• Advance Process Technology
• P-Channel
• Fast Switching
• 175 C operating temperature
• Fully Avalanche Rated
• Ultra Low On Resistance

IRF4905 Absolute Maximum Ratings

Following figure shows the absolute maximum ratings of this P-Channel MOSFET.

• These are the stress ratings of this transistor which play a vital role in the execution of the electronic circuit. If these stress ratings are exceeded from absolute maximum ratings, they can affect the overall performance of the project.
• Also, if these ratings are applied for the maximum period of time above normal operating conditions, they can drastically affect the reliability of the device.
• It is advised to check these ratings before placing the device in the circuit in order to avoid any hassle in the future.

Applications

• Commercial and Industrial Applications
• Fast Switching
• Amplification Purpose

That's all for today. I hope you have found this article useful. If you are feeling skeptical or have any question, you can ask me in the comment section below. I'd love to guide you according to the best of my expertise. You are most welcome to feed us with your valuable suggestions - they help us provide you quality work as per your needs and requirements. Thanks for reading the article.

Introduction to Arduino Due

Hey Fellas! I am back to give you a daily dose of useful information. Today, I'll uncover the details on the Introduction to Arduino Due. It is a microcontroller board based on Atmel SAM3X8E, 32-Bit ARM microcontroller. It is developed by Arcuino.cc with the intention to provide an easy pathway for the beginners to get a hands-on experience with the module without any prior technical knowledge. You can just plug the device into the computer through a USB cable and start playing with it right away. Arduino Modules are a step ahead of a single microcontroller. If your project is mainly based on a microcontroller, you need to buy external peripherals and connect them with the controller in order to lay out an automation into your project. Arduino Boards has made things easy more than ever before. Although, more or less, they are known are microcontrollers, they have a leg over them because of built-in peripherals and an ability to perform a number of functions on a single chip. Also, no external burner is required for Arduino, as it comes with a built-in burner. You just have to write and compile the required code into the Arduino Software and burn in the module through a single click on the computer. In this post, I'll cover each and everything related to Arduino Due i.e. its main features, pinout, pin description, compilers used and applications. Let's get down to the nitty-gritty of this tiny module and explore everything you need to know.

Introduction to Arduino Due

• Arduino Due is a microcontroller board that is mainly based on Atmel SAM3X8E (32-Bit ARM microcontroller). It is a big module as compared to Arduino Nano or Arduino Uno and comes with more number of pins and memory space as compared to them.
• It contains 54 digital that can work both ways: input or output. Out of these digital pins, 12 can be used to generate PWM outputs.
• This module contains everything in bulk required for the automation project including 12 analog inputs, and 4 UARTs serial module.
• I was floored when I came to know this module comes with clock frequency around 84 MHz. Yes, you heard that right. The splendid oscillator will help in processing speed grow skyrocket.
• Two USB ports are available where one is used as a programming USB Port while other is Native USB Port. Don't you worry, I'll make it clear the difference between them. Just follow along.
• Most of the Arduino Boards run at 5 V but this module is an exception that operates at 3.3V. The pins incorporated on the cannot withstand voltage higher than this. Doing so can drastically affect the board performance and can make your pins null and void.
• JTAG is added on the board that is mainly used for testing the physical connection between the onboard pins.
• The Arduino Due can be programmed using a common Arduino Software (IDE), that is compatible with all Arduino boards and can work both ways: online and offline.

• This module incorporates 2 DAC (digital to analog), 2 TWI, a power jack (you can power up the device by connecting it with a computer through USB cable or using this power jack), an SPI header reset button, an erase button and reset button. Bunch of functions, making your task easy.
• As per the voltage constraint, Arduino shields that operate at 5V are not compatible with this Due module. However, the shields that come with Arduino R3 layout work efficiently including Arduino WiFi shield and Ethernet Shield as they operate at 3.3V.

1. Arduino Due Features

You have got a brief overview of the device. I have compiled the main features of this device at one place. Following table shows the main features of Arduino Due.  

Microcontroller	Atmel SAM3X8E ARM Cortex-M3
CPU	32-Bit
Digital I/O Pins	54
PWM Output	12
Analog Input	12
Flash Memory (Program Memory)	512 KB
SRAM	96 KB (two banks: 64 KB and 32 KB)
Operating Voltage	3.3V
Input Voltage	7-12 V
Manufacturer	Arduino.cc
Oscillator	up to 84 MHz
Software Used	Arduino Software (IDE)
Reset Button	1
Erase Button	1
DAC (Digital to Analog Converter)	2
UART (Serial Communication)	4
SPI Communication	Yes
TWI (I2C Communication)	2
Arduino Shield Compatibility	Yes (that operate at 3.3V)
USB (2)	Programming USB (1) Native USB (1)
Power Jack	1
JTAG Header	1
DC current for 3.3V	800mA
Total DC output current on all I/O lines	130mA

2. Arduino Due Pinout

Now, you have got a hold of the main features of this module. In this section, I'll highlight the pinout of the chip. Following figure shows the pinout of Arduino Due.  

• I know it is quite overwhelming and difficult to digest at one glance, but don't you worry I have broken it down in the pin description with images.

3. Arduino Due Pin Description

The function associated with each pin will help you understand the purpose of each pin in the relevant project they can be used for. Following table shows the description of each pin.

Digital I/O Pins	54	There are 54 digital I/O pins, out of which 12 can be used as PWM outputs.
Analog Pins	A0 to A11	These pins are used for an analog pins on the board. They are 12 in numbers.
Digital to Analog Converter	DAC0, DAC1	Two digital to analog converter with 12bit resolution.
Erase Button	1	Erases the information by holding down this button
Reset Button	1	Resets the board
External Interrupts	Digital I/O Pins	All 54 pins can be used for generating an external interrupt
UART	4	Board comes with 4 pairs of TX and RX serial pins for laying out serial communication. These pins include (A9,A8), (D4,D5), (A13,A12), (A11,A10)
SPI	Serial Peripheral Communication	(MOSI, MISO, SCK, RESET) Pin used (A26, A25, A27, Reset)
TWI	Two Wire Interface (2 module)	There are two I2C communication incorporated on the board with pins at A18, A17, B13, B12
CAN Interface	2	CAN (Controller Area Network) Interface is used for communication between controllers. Pins include
Power Source	+5V, +3.3V, GND and Vin	+5V- Connected to 5V +3.3V (Operating Voltage) Vin- Input Voltage - Connected to +7V to +12V (recommended) GND - Connected to Ground

  You have got clear about the functions associated with each pin. Now, I'll highlight the functions of each pin with images, making it easy for you to look at the information without much hassle.

Digital I/O Pins

Arduino Due comes with four ports named PORTA, PORTB, PORTC, and PORTD. There are 54 digitals I/O pins. The pins with PINK color on the pinout mention above are used as digital I/O pins.

Analog Pins

There are 12 analog pins on the board. They are a part of PORTA and PORTB and appear on the board as follow.  

USB Ports and Power Jack

There are two USB ports available on the board where one is programming USB port and other is native USB port. Both ports can be used for programming purpose, however, the native port also acts as a USB host for connected peripherals like keyboards and smartphones. There is one power jack on the board for powering up the device.

UART

There are four UART channels added on the board. They are used for the serial communication with the external devices where TX is the Serial Transmit Pin while RX is the Serial Receive Pin. They appear on the board as follow.

TWI

There are two TWI (Two Wire Interface) modules incorporated on the board, also known as the I2C protocol, and are used to establish the communication between low-speed devices like ADC and DAC converters and microcontrollers. It is a two wire communication and comes with two lines: Serial Clock (SCL) and Serial Data (SDA). The former is a clock signal that is used to synchronize the data transfer between the devices while the later is used to hold the desired data.

PWM Output

Out of 54 digital pins, 12 are used for PWM output. They appear on the board as follow.

JTAG Header

JTAG header is a remarkable addition in the board that most of the board lack in the Arduino Community. It is a common hardware interface that sets a pathway to communicate directly with external chips on a board. It was introduced by the Joint (European) Test Access Group with the intention of testing the physical connections between pins on a chip. It comes with fours pins known as TCK, TMS, TDI, and TDO. This header incorporates on the board as follows.

Reset and Erase button

There is one reset and one erase button is added on the device. Former is used to reset the controller while later is used to erase the stored information on the board. They appear on the board as follow.

Power Source

There are four power sources mentioned as 5V, 3.3V, Vin and Ground. The 3.3V is the operating voltage of each pin while Vin is the input voltage with the recommended voltage range of 7V to 12V. You can power the controller with Vin or 5V. These voltage sources appear on the board as follow.

4. Programming and Communication

• Almost all Arduino Boards can be programmed by Arduino Software called IDE. It is easy to use and a common person with no prior technical can learn the software without much difficulty. It is readily available, just download the software and select the board you aim to work on. As I mentioned earlier, no external burner is required to burn the code into the controller. Arduino software works perfectly with common operating systems like Windows, Linux or MAC.
• This module comes with a bunch of communication protocols to communicate with external devices. The UART is useful for setting up a serial communication. One serial module is okay, right? Wrong. There are four of them, giving you the flexibility to establish serial communication with more than one devices. Serial library in the software is mainly used for the serial communication between board and external devices.
• The Serial Monitor is a remarkable addition in Arduino Software, mainly used for transmitting textual data to or from the board.
• The TX and RX pins incorporate an LED on each pin that flashes as the data is transmitted.
• Two Wire Interface is also included in the device that comes with two lines SDA and SCL. There are two TWI channels available on the board. Arduino Software Wire Libary is used to access the TWI bus.
• Arduino Due comes with a serial peripheral interface (SPI) that plays a vital role in the communication between the microcontroller and other peripheral devices such as shift registers and sensors. There are two pins used for SPI communication i.e. MOSI (Master Output Slave Input) and MISO (Master Input Slave Output). The former is used for receiving the data while later helps in sending data by the microcontroller.

5. Difference between Arduino Due and Arduino Mega

There is a vital difference between both modules in terms of operating voltage, memory space, number of pins and processing speed. Arduino Due can perform the functions with greater pace as compared to Arduino Mega. More powerful built-in peripherals and more memory space put Arduino Due ahead of Mega. However, there are some limitations. Arduino Due is not compatible with the 3.3V devices, also, SAM3Xchip provides a complex and intimidating interface that can scare the hell of the person who is practicing this module very first time. It is advised to work with a smaller module like Arduino Uno in the start, and as you get a solid grip on the module, you can move to the complex interface.

6. Arduino Due Applications

Arduino Due is a little bit bulky, covers large space and is used in a wide range of applications where fast processing speed is the end result. Following are the main applications of the board.

• Industrial Automation
• Home and Security Systems
• Virtual Reality Applications
• Android Applications
• GSM Based Projects
• Embedded System

That's all for today. I hope I have given you everything you needed to get started with this module. If you are still living in doubt, you can approach me in the comment section below. I'll guide you the best way I can. Your feedback and suggestions are the piece of nuggets for us, on which we generate and shape our content - so keep that coming. Thanks for reading the article.

Introduction to ATmega128

Hey Guys! Hope you are doing well. I am back to feed you with valuable information relating to engineering and technology. Today, I'll uncover the details on the Introduction to ATmega128. It is an AVR, 8-bit low power microcontroller, that comes with a 64-pin interface and is based on RISC architecture.  Availability of 133 Powerful Instructions with single clock cycle and 32 x 8 General Purpose Working Registers make this device an ideal choice for many applications where decent code execution is required. The memory space incorporates on this module is more than normal AVR controllers including Program memory around 128K, enough to store the number of instructions on a single chip. In this post, I'll try to cover each and everything related to ATmega128, so you can get clear idea what is this about before aiming to pick it for your relevant project. Let's jump right in and get down to the nitty-gritty of this module.

Introduction to ATmega128

• ATmega128 is an AVR, 8-bit low power microcontroller that contains 64-pin interface and is based on RISC architecture.
• It is mainly used in an embedded system and industrial automation.
• This AVR controller differs from PIC controllers in accordance with the instruction set where AVR requires one clock cycle to execute a number of instructions while PIC controllers need a number of clock cycles to execute a single instruction.
• The ADC is included in the device that makes it an ideal choice for sensor interfacing where it receives the analog signal and converts it to a digital one. There are total 8 channels available on the ADC module.

• Apart from communications protocols like SPI, I2C, and USRAT, this tiny module comes with watchdog timers, external interrupts, power up timer, 6 sleep modes and programming enable pin.
• The Program Memory is based on Flash and comes with a memory space around 128K while EEPROM and SRAM are 4K each.
• If you are an expert or newbie, you need this module every now and then for the development of the electronic projects where automation is a major concern. Ability to perform a number of functions without buying external components makes this device highly economical and best choice for the tech geeks.

1. ATmega128 Features

This AVR microcontroller comes with very useful features. Large memory space and number of pins make this device a step ahead for driving automation in the relevant project. Following table shows the main features of ATmega128.

No. of Pins	64
CPU	8-Bit AVR
Operating Voltage	4.5 to 5.5 V
Program Memory	128K
Program Memory Type	Flash
RAM	4K
EEPROM	4K
ADC Number of ADC Channels	10-Bit 8
Analog Comparator	Yes
PWM Channels	6
Oscillator	up to 16 MHz
Timer (4)	16-Bit Timer (2) 8-Bit Timer (2)
Packages (3)	PDIP TQFP QFN
Power Up Timer	Yes
I/O Pins	53
Manufacturer	Microchip
SPI	Yes
I2C	Yes
Watchdog Timer	Yes
Brown out Detection (BOD)	Yes
USART	Yes
Sleep Modes	6
Minimum Operating Temperature	-40 C
Maximum Operating Temperature	85 C

2. ATmega128 Pinout and Pin Description

The pinout and pin description of each pin will help you understand the major functions associated with each pin. Some pins are able to perform more than one functions on each pin.

Pinout

Following figure shows the pinout of ATmega128.  

• The AVCC is the voltage applied to the ADC module while AREF is the reference voltage applied to the controller. The VCC and GND are the voltage supply and ground pins respectively.

Pin Description

Following table shows the description of each pin.

1	PEN	Programming Enable
2	PE0 RXD PDI	I/O Pin Serial Receive Pin (USART)
3	PE1 TXD PDO	I/O Pin Serial Transmit Pin (USART)
4	PE2 XCK0 AIN0	I/O Pin External Interrupt PinAnalog Comparator Positive
5	PE3 OC3A AIN1	I/O Pin Dedicated Pin for Timer (PWM Channel) Analog Comparator Negative
6	PE4 OC3B INT4	I/O Pin Dedicated Pin for Timer (PWM Channel) Interrupt
7	PE5 OC3C INT5	I/O Pin Dedicated Pin for Timer (PWM Channel) Interrupt
8	PE6 T3 INT6	I/O Pin Timer 3 Interrupt
9	PE7 ICP3 INT7	I/O Pin Timer/Counter3 Input Capture Pin Interrupt
10	PB0 SS	I/O Pin SS (Slave Select Input for SPI).  This pin is set to low when the controller acts as a slave
11	PB1 SCK	I/O Pin SCK (Serial Clock for SPI). This clock is shared between the controller and external devices for accurate data transfer
12	PB2 MOSI	I/O Pin MOSI (Master Output Slave Input) for SPI communication. The data is received by this pin when the microcontroller acts as a slave
13	PB3 MISO	I/O Pin MISO (Master Input Slave Output) for SPI communication. The data is sent to the master using this pin when microcontroller acts as a slave
14	PB4 OC0	I/O Pin PWM Channel Output
15	PB5 OC1A	I/O Pin PWM Channel Output
16	PB6 OC1B	I/O Pin PWM Channel Output
17	PB7 OC2 OC1C	I/O Pin PWM Channel Output
18	PG3 TOSC2	I/O Pin MISO (Master Input Slave Output) for SPI communication. When the controller acts as a slave, the data is sent by a controller to master through this pin Interrupt
19	PG4 TOSC1	I/O Pin SCK (SPI Bus Serial Clock). This clock is shared between the controller and other devices for data transfer Interrupt
20	RESET	Voltage Supply Pin for ADC
21	VCC	Voltage Reference
22	GND	Ground Pin
23	XTAL2	Crystal Oscillator Output
24	XTAL1	Crystal Oscillator Input
25	PD0 SCL INT0	I/O Pin I2C communication External Interrupt 0
26	PD1 SDA INT1	I/O Pin I2C communication External Interrupt 1
27	PD2 RXD1 INT2	I/O Pin Serial Communication Receive Pin (USART) External Interrupt 2
28	PD3 TXD1 INT3	I/O Pin Serial Communication Transmit Pin (USART) External Interrupt 3
29	PD4 ICP1	I/O Pin Timer/Counter1 Input Capture Pin
30	PD5 XCK1	I/O Pin External Clock I/O for USART
31	PD6 T1	I/O Pin Timer 1
32	PD7 T2	I/O Pin Timer 2
33	PG0 WR	I/O Pin Control Pin for writing to the external memory
34	PG1 RD	I/O Pin Control Pin for reading from the external data memory
35	PC0 A8	I/O Pin
36	PC1 A9	I/O Pin
37	PC2 A10	I/O Pin
38	PC3 A11	I/O Pin
39	PC4 A12	I/O Pin
40	PC5 A13	I/O
41	PC6 A14	I/O Pin
42	PC7 A15	I/O Pin
43	PG2 ALE	I/O Pin ALE (Address Latch Enable), it is used when multiple memory chips are connected to the microcontroller and only one of them needs to be selected
44	PA7 AD7	I/O Pin
45	PA6 AD6	I/O Pin
46	PA5 AD5	I/O Pin
47	PA4 AD4	I/O Pin
48	PA3 AD3	I/O Pin
49	PA2 AD2	I/O Pin
50	PA1 AD1	I/O Pin
51	PA0 AD0	I/O Pin
52	VCC	Voltage Supply Pin
53	GND	Ground
54	PF7 ADC7 TDI	I/O Pin ADC Channel 7 JTAG Interface
55	PF6 ADC6 TDO	I/O Pin ADC Channel 6 JTAG Interface
56	PF5 ADC5 TMS	I/O Pin ADC Channel 5 JTAG Interface
57	PF4 ADC4 TCK	I/O Pin ADC Channel 4 JTAG Interface
58	PF3 ADC3	I/O Pin ADC Channel 3
59	PF2 ADC2	I/O Pin ADC Channel 2
60	PF1 ADC1	I/O Pin ADC Channel 1
61	PF0 ADC0	I/O Pin ADC Channel 0
62	AREF	Reference Voltage
63	GND	Ground
64	AVCC	Voltage Supply Pin for ADC

3. ATmega128 Main Functions

ATmega128 can perform a number of functions on a single chip. Large memory space with more number of pins interface put this device ahead of other controllers available in the AVR community. Following are the major functions associated to this tiny module.

Timer

Atmega128 comes with four timers i.e. two 8-bit and two 16-bit timers. These timers play a vital role in creating a delay of any running functions and can be used both ways i.e. timers as well as counters where former is used to control the internal functions of the controller and increments the instruction cycle, while later counts the number of intervals by incrementing the rising and falling edge of the pin and is mainly used for external functions. Two other timers added in the device are

• Oscillator Start-up Timers
• Power Up Timer

Oscillator start-up timer resets the controller to stabilize the crystal oscillator. And power-up timer is used to generating a minor delay once you power on the device, helps in stabilizing the power signals.

Number of Sleep Modes

This device incorporates Six Sleeping Modes for power saving purpose. These modes include:

• Power-save
• Power-down
• Idle
• ADC Noise Reduction
• Standby
• Extended Standby

Brown Out Detect (BOD)

The BOD, also known as BOR (Brown Out Reset), is a valuable addition to the device that helps in resetting the module once the Vcc (voltage supply) goes below a brownout threshold voltage. In this mode, multiple voltage ranges are produced to save the module once the power drops at the voltage supply line. If you aim to bring back the device from BOD function, it is advised to enable the Power Up Timer for creating a slight delay.

Watchdog Timer

Most of the chips, if not all, produced by Microchip, incorporate a built-in watchdog timer that resets the controller if the running program hangs up during compilation or gets stuck in the infinite loop. The main purpose of this timer is to prevent the controller from resetting it manually, giving you a slight edge over other processors where you need to wrestle your mind to manually reset the controller in case there comes a glitch in the running function. The watchdog timer behaves like a countdown timer.

Interrupt

The interrupts are very helpful for calling the desired function that puts the main running function on hold until the required instruction is executed. The controller goes back to the main program once the interrupt is executed.

I2C Communication

I2C protocol is used to layout the communication between low-speed devices like ADC and DAC converters and microcontrollers. It is a two wire communication that mainly contains two lines

• Serial Clock (SCL)
• Serial Data (SDA)

The former is a clock signal, mainly used to synchronize the data transfer between the devices and is generated by the master device, while the later is used to hold the desired data.

SPI Communication

ATmega128 houses a serial peripheral interface (SPI) that is mainly used for communication between the microcontroller and other peripheral devices such as sensors, shift registers, and SD cards. Separate clock and data lines are available, layered with a select line for selecting the relevant device for communication. Two pins used for SPI communication are as follow

• MOSI (Master Output Slave Input)
• MISO (Master Input Slave Output)

The MOSI pin is used for receiving the data when the microcontroller acts as a slave. Similarly, MISO helps in sending data by the microcontroller while later acts as a slave mode.

4. ATmega128 Compilers

Compilers are the basic software used for writing and compiling the code into the AVR controller. Some are free to use and some are paid. If you are getting your hands-on very first time with the controllers, it is advised to go with the free version, you can move to paid version as you grow and learn with the passage of time. Following are some basic compilers mainly used for AVR microcontrollers.

• The IAR is a paid compiler and comes with a professional interface. As per the testimonials and personal experience of some of the experts, this compiler proves to the best version for the AVR microcontrollers.
• CodeVision houses a CodeWizard and turns out to be highly economical for the controllers.
• The GCC Port is another good pick to start with, but it comes with a bit complex interface. It works with both Windows and Linux operating systems.
• ImageCraft is a valuable addition for compiling the code, but it doesn't incorporate some GUI features like editor and project management that may put you in big trouble during the code execution.

5. ATmega128 Memory Interface

Two memory types are mainly used in ATmeag128 named as Program Memory (Flash Memory) and SRAM memory where former makes use of a single pipelining for the execution of the instructions and later is a volatile memory mainly depends on the power supply source.  This AVR module incorporates a Harvard Architecture where separate memories spaces are reserved for both data and program. The memory space in the controller is nothing but a combination of the linear and regular memory maps. The Fast Access File Register is layered with 32 x 8 – Bit general purpose working registers. The single clock cycle is enough for accessing these registers and laying out the ALU (Arithmetic Logic Unit) operation where the result is stored in the Register file.

Program Memory (ROM)

Program memory has a memory space around 128K where recent instruction is called followed by the next instruction, executing the instructions in every clock cycle.

• It is mainly categorized into two parts named as the Boot Program section and Application Program section. The former comes with Applications Flash Memory that plays the main part for SPM instruction writing.

Data Memory (RAM)

The data memory has a memory space around 4K. Five different addressing modes in the AVR architecture are used for addressing this RAM memory. These modes are named as

• Direct
• Indirect
• Indirect with Displacement
• Indirect with Pre-decrement
• Indirect with Post-increment.

Three address registers, known as X, Y, and Z, increment and decrement in indirect addressing modes. Control registers are present in the flexible interrupt module that mainly come with global interrupt enable bit laying in the Status Register. These interrupts come with an Interrupt Vector Table where Interrupt Vector is a major part of it and both are inversely proportional to each other. It is important to note that, the Interrupt Vector table depends on the Interrupt Vector Position.

• The ALU module operates in a single clock cycle and is divided into three main functions called direct, arithmetic and bit functions, that are directly connected with 32 general purpose registers.

6. ATmega128 Block Diagram

Following figure shows the block diagram of ATmega128.

• ATmega128 comes with six software selectable power saving modes. The Power-down is very helpful for freezing the Oscillator and stops all other module functions while keeping the register contents saved. The functions remain disabled until the next interrupt is called and executed.
• Similarly, the Idle mode allows the interrupt system, SPI Port, SRAM, Timers/Counter to function while keeping the CPU disabled.
• The ADC Noise Reduction mode plays a vital role in minimizing the switching noise and freezes entire module except asynchronous ADC and Timers.
• In the Power-save mode, the entire device is sleeping except asynchronous timer which continues to run.
• The Standby mode puts the whole device in sleep mode except Crystal Oscialltor which continues to run, helping to consume low power. The Extended Standby mode allows both the Oscillator and the Asynchronous Timer to run while the rest of the device sleeps.

ATmega128 Applications

• Embedded systems
• Industrial Automation
• Students Projects
• Making of quadcopters
• Home automation

That's all for today. I hope I have given you everything you needed to know about ATmega128. If you are unsure or have any question, you can approach me in the comment section below. I'll try and help you according to the best of my knowledge. Feel free to keep us updated with your valuable suggestions, so we keep providing quality work and you keep visiting us every now and then. Thanks for reading the article.

Build Your Work’s Credibility with Plagiarism Checker

Hello Guys! Hope you are doing well. Today, I'll discuss how you can Build Your Work’s Credibility with Plagiarism Checker. The term Plagiarism is the practice of taking someone else's idea and passing them off as their work. It is considered a fraud. Nowadays, plagiarism checker is introduced, and many companies use them to check if your work is your own or you're lying.

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Build Your Work’s Credibility with Plagiarism Checker

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It has become my habit to use a free plagiarism checker so that I can make my content plagiarism free before publishing them. You can also benefit from plagiarism checker free as you can find many free tools on the internet. That's all for today. I hope you have found this article useful. If you are unsure or have any question, you can ask me in the comment section below. I'd love to help you in any way I can. Thanks for reading the article.

Introduction to ATmega8

Hi Friends! Hope you are doing well. I am back to give you a daily dose of useful information so you can excel and improve as per your technical needs and requirements. Today, I'll uncover the details on the Introduction to ATmega8. It is an 8-bit AVR microcontroller that is based on RISC CMOS technology and comes with a 28-pin interface for the PDIP package. The Program memory is 8K Flash while RAM and EEPROM are 1K and 512 bytes respectively.

Microchip has been the main source for producing PIC and AVR microcontrollers that are mainly used in embedded and industrial automation systems. These modules can perform a number of functions on a tiny chip, preventing you from spending too much and purchasing external components for laying out automation in the relevant project.

In this post, I’ll cover each and everything related to this tiny chip including main features, pinout, pin description, functions, the compiler used and everything you need to know. Let’s get down to the details of this onboard module:

Introduction to ATmega8

• ATmega8 is a 28-pin, 8-bit AVR microcontroller, based on RISC architecture, designed by Microchip and is mainly used in the embedded systems and industrial automation projects.
• It comes in three packages known as PDIP, MLF, and TQFP, where the first one contains 28 pins and the other two come with 32-pin on each module.
• The Program memory(Flash Memory) is 8KB used to store the programming code and permanent settings.
• Atmega8 comes with a RAM memory of 1KB, it's a volatile memory and refreshes on restart.
• It also has an EEPROM memory of 512 bytes, which is a semi-volatile memory.
• Other features includes are a power-up timer, a watchdog timer, Brown out Detection, In-Circuit Serial Programming and five sleep modes.

• The instruction set is the main criteria that set this module apart from the PIC microcontroller where the former executes most instructions in one clock cycle and comes with 32 general-purpose registers while later requires a number of clock cycles per instruction and comes with W register.
• The 10-bit ADC module is added to the device that plays a vital role for sensor interfacing and contains a total of 6 channels for the PDIP package and 8 channels for the remaining two packages.
• Communication protocols like SPI, I2C, and USART are added to the device that is widely used for establishing communication with external devices.

ATmega8 Key Features

• Before you start working on the relevant project, it is advised to check the features of the module, in order to get an idea if these features are suitable for the project you aim to work on.
• The following table shows the main features of ATmega8.

Atmega8 Key Features
No. of Pins	28
CPU	8-Bit AVR
Operating Voltage	2.7 to 5.5 V
Program Memory	8K
Program Memory Type	Flash
RAM	1K Bytes
EEPROM	512 Bytes
ADC Number of ADC Channels	10-Bit 6 in PDIP, 8 in TQFP and QFN
Comparator	1
PWM Channels	3
Oscillator	up to 16 MHz
Timer (3)	16-Bit Timer (1) 8-Bit Timer (2)
Packages (3)	PDIP (28-Pins) TQFP (32-Pins) QFN (32)
Power Up Timer	Yes
I/O Pins	23
Manufacturer	Microchip
SPI	Yes
I2C	Yes
Watchdog Timer	Yes
Brownout Detection (BOD)	Yes
USART	Yes
Sleep Modes	5
Minimum Operating Temperature	-55 C
Maximum Operating Temperature	125 C

ATmega8 Pinout and Description

• You have got a brief introduction to the module. In this section, we will cover the pinout and description of each pin.

Pinout

• The following figure shows the pinout of ATmega8.

• ATmega8 comes in three packages known as PDIP, MLF, and TQFP where the first is used for prototype projects, while the other two are used for industrial and electronic devices.
• The following table shows the complete description of each pinout, which will help you anticipate the major function associated with each pin.

Atmega8 pinout & Description
1	PC6 RESET PCINT14	I/O Pin RESET will be generated by keeping this pin LOW for longer than the minimum pulse length Interrupt
2	PD0 RXD PCINT16	I/O Pin Serial Receive Pin (USART) Interrupt
3	PD1 TXD PCINT17	I/O Pin Serial Transmit Pin (USART)Interrupt
4	PD2 INT0 PCINT18	I/O Pin External Interrupt Interrupt
5	PD3 INT1 OC2B PCINT19	I/O Pin External Interrupt Dedicated Pin for Timer (PWM Channel) Interrupt
6	PD4 T0 XCK PCINT20	I/O Pin T0 ( Timer0 External Counter Input) XCK ( USART External Clock I/O) Interrupt
7	VCC	Voltage Supply
8	GND	Ground Pin
9	PB6 OSC1 XTAL1 PCINT6	I/O Pin Oscillator Input Pin Interrupt
10	PB7 OSC2 XTAL2 PCINT7	I/O Pin Oscillator Output Pin Interrupt
11	PD5 T1 OC0B PCINT21	I/O Pin PinT1 ( Timer0 External Counter Input) Dedicated Pin for Timer (PWM Channel) Interrupt
12	PD6 AIN0 OC0A PCINT22	I/O PinAnalog Comparator Positive Dedicated Pin for Timer (PWM Channel) Interrupt
13	PD7 AIN1 PCINT23	I/O Pin Analog Comparator Negative Interrupt
14	PB0 ICP1 CLKO PCINT0	I/O Pin In Circuit Serial Programming Clock Interrupt
15	PB1 OC1A PCINT1	I/O Pin Dedicated Pin for Timer (PWM Channel) Interrupt
16	PB2 SS OC1B PCINT2	I/O Pin SPI Slave Select Input. When the controller acts as a slave, this pin is LOW Dedicated Pin for Timer (PWM Channel) Interrupt
17	PB3 MOSI OC2A PCINT3	I/O Pin MOSI (Master Output Slave Input) for SPI Communication. The data is received by this pin when the controller acts as a slave Dedicated Pin for Timer Interrupt
18	PB4 MISO PCINT4	I/O Pin MISO (Master Input Slave Output) for SPI communication. When the controller acts as a slave, the data is sent by a controller to master through this pin Interrupt
19	PB5 SCK PCINT5	I/O Pin SCK (SPI Bus Serial Clock). This clock is shared between the controller and other devices for data transfer Interrupt
20	AVCC	Voltage Supply Pin for ADC
21	AREF	Voltage Reference
22	GND	Ground Pin
23	PC0 ADC0 PCINT8	I/O Pin Analog Channel 0 Interrupt
24	PC1 ADC1 PCINT9	I/O Pin Analog Channel 1 Interrupt
25	PC2 ADC2 PCINT10	I/O Pin Analog Channel 2 Interrupt
26	PC3 ADC3 PCINT11	I/O Pin Analog Channel 3 Interrupt
27	PC4 ADC4 SDA PCINT12	I/O Pin Analog Channel 4 Serial Data (I2C) Interrupt
28	PC5 ADC5 SCL PCINT13	I/O Pin Analog Channel 5 Serial Clock (I2C) Interrupt

ATmega8 Main Functions

• ATmega8 comes with the ability to execute and perform a number of functions.
• Following are the major functions related to this tiny module.

Timer

Atmega8 incorporates three timers where two are 8-bit and one is a 16-bit timer.  These timers can be used both ways i.e. timer as well as a counter where the former is used to create the delay in any running function, controls the internal functions of the controller and increments the instruction cycle, while later is used to count the number of intervals by incrementing the rising and falling edge of the pin and is mainly used for external functions. Apart from these timers, two other timers are included in the device named as

• Oscillator Start-up Timers
• Power Up Timer

An oscillator start-up timer is used to make the crystal oscillator stable by resetting the controller. And power-up timer generates a minor delay once you power on the device, helping in stabilizing the power in order to generate power signals with continuous intervals.

Number of Sleep Modes

Five Sleep Modes are incorporated into the device that helps in saving power. These modes include:

• Power-save
• Power-down
• Idle
• ADC Noise Reduction
• Standby

Brown Out Detect (BOD)

The BOD, also known as BOR (Brown Out Reset), is used to resetting the module once the Vcc (voltage supply) goes below a brownout threshold voltage. It is important to note that, the Power Up Timer must be enabled for creating a delay and helping in bringing back the device from a BOD function. In this mode, multiple voltage ranges are created to protect the module once the power drops at the voltage supply line.

SPI Communication

ATmega8 comes with a serial peripheral interface (SPI) - A communication module that helps in establishing communication between the microcontroller and other peripheral devices such as shift registers, SD cards, and sensors. It incorporates a separate clock and data lines with the addition of a select line for selecting the relevant device for communication.

Two pins used for SPI communication are as follow:

• MOSI (Master Output Slave Input)
• MISO (Master Input Slave Output)

The MOSI pin receives the data when the controller acts as a slave. And MISO plays a vital role in sending data by the controller while later is put in the slave mode.

Watchdog Timer

ATmega8 incorporates a built-in watchdog timer that resets the controller if the running program hangs up during compilation or gets stuck in the infinite loop. The watchdog timer is nothing but a countdown timer.

Interrupt

The interrupt hints at a call of emergency that puts the main function on hold until the required instruction is executed. The controller goes to the main program once the interrupt is called and executed.

I2C Communication

• I2C protocol is used to connect low-speed devices like ADC and DAC converters, and microcontrollers.
• It is a two-wire communication that comes with:
  • Serial Clock (SCL)
  • Serial Data (SDA)

The former is a clock signal that synchronizes the data transfer between the devices and is produced by the master device, while the latter is used to carry the required data.

ATmega8 Memory Interface

The memory space in the controller is the manifestation of the linear and regular memory map. This AVR module comes with a Harvard Architecture that houses separate memories for both data and program.

• Single pipelining is used for the executions of the instructions in the Program Memory - A programmable Flash Memory - where the next instruction is called and executed followed by the next instruction that helps in executing the instructions in every clock cycle.

The Fast Access File Register comes with 32 x 8 - Bit general purpose working registers that can be accessed with the single clock cycle that assists in performing the ALU (Arithmetic Logic Unit) operation where the result is stored in the Register File.

The I/O Memory can be accessed in multiple ways by direct manner or using data Space locations covering Register File, 0x20 – 0x5F.

Program Memory (ROM)

• Program memory comes with a memory space around 8K and can perform the instructions in every clock cycle.
• It stores information permanently and doesn't depend on the source of power supply and is widely known as ROM or Non-Volatile Memory.
• The program memory address can access 16 or 32-bit instruction.
• Program Flash is divided into two parts including the Application Program section and the Boot Program section.
• The latter comes with Applications Flash Memory used for SPM instruction writing.

Data Memory (RAM)

The data memory comes with memory space around 1K (1024 bytes). It can be accessed through the five different addressing modes in the AVR architecture named Direct, Indirect, Indirect with Displacement, Indirect with Pre-decrement, and Indirect with Post-increment.

• Three address registers X, Y, and Z are capable to increment and decrement with regular intervals in the presence of indirect addressing modes.

The flexible interrupt module houses control registers that further contain global interrupt enable bit sitting in the Status Register. All these interrupts contain Interrupt Vector Table with Interrupt Vector where the former depends on the Interrupt Vector Position and are inversely proportional to each other.

• The ALU module, which is divided into three major functions known as direct, arithmetic and bit functions, has a direct connection with 32 general-purpose registers within a single clock cycle.

ATmega8 Compilers

If you are new to a microcontroller, you may be a little skeptical about the compiler you can use for writing and compiling the code into your AVR controller. I've combined some of the basic compilers where some are better than others in terms of efficiency. Although the free versions may lack some features, they are recommended to start with as a newbie to get hands-on experience with the AVR controller.

• The IAR compiler proves to be the best compiler for AVR. Although it is expensive and incorporates a highly professional interface.
• The GCC Port is a good option for AVR that works with both Linux and Windows. The interface is a little bit complex.
• ImageCraft is another right option to start with, but it lacks some GUI features like editor and project management that may create trouble during the execution of code.
• CodeVision comes with CodeWizard and is highly economical.

6. ATmega8 Interfacing with Arduino

ATmega8 can be interfaced with Arduino for the development of the embedded project. The following figure shows the interfacing of ATmega8 with Arduino.

• If you are new to the Arduino Board, you must try these Arduino Projects for Beginners, they will help understand the major functions of the Arduino Board.

ATmega8 Internal Block Diagram

• A Block diagram will help you get a hold of how major functions and components are connected and perform inside the device.
• The following figure shows the block diagram of ATmega8:

• ATmega8 is a low-power CMOS AVR microcontroller that is mainly based on RISC architecture. By executing powerful instructions in a single clock cycle, the ATmega8 is capable to perform and execute powerful instructions using 1MIPS per MHz in a single clock cycle that drastically helps in optimizing the power consumption.

8. ATmega8 Projects and Applications

• Used in embedded and robotics system
• It is widely used in students projects
• Home Security System
• For the designing of quadcopters
• Industrial Automation

That's all for today. I hope you have found this article information. If you are unsure or have any questions, you can approach me in the comment section below. I'd love to help you the best way I can. Feel free to feed us with your valuable suggestions - they help us provide you quality work. Thanks for reading the article.

Which Engineering Field Should You Pick? Mystery Unlocked

Hi Friends! Hope you are doing well. Today, I will highlight and discuss the details on Which Engineering Field Should You Pick? Mystery Unlocked. If your parents are traditional and orthodox in nature, you are left out with only two options picking as a career i.e. Engineer or Doctor. Former is related to math while later involves the comprehensive study of human biology. In this post we cover we cover the best engineering field for you? Or Engineering is for you anyway? There are lots of question coming around and making your mind confused when you pass out your high school and are on the verge of selecting engineering field as a career. With that being said, picking the right type of engineering is not a one night process, it starts right in your school days when you are studying and taking part in regular activities. That is the right time to start figuring out and keenly observe the parameters that intrigue and provoke you as a student and the things that you love doing without getting bored. Engineering is not for everyone. Protip: If you are interested in arts, don't fall a prey to society or parent's pressure that you need to pick engineering anyway. If you hate science and math, there is no point in wasting four years in the field that you hate or have no interest in it at all. Engineering field or any direct relation with math seem quite daunting for some students and they go into the sheer trauma when they hear the word "Maths" I don't know I'm favoring engineering or scaring the hell out of you by pointing out the negatives of engineering field. Anyway back to the main topic. Engineering field is quite vast and covers almost every aspect of human life including, biomedical, space, transportation, infrastructure development, electrical power, communication, automotive etc.

Which Engineering Field Should You Pick? Mystery Unlocked

Following are some main engineering field you can pick based on your nature and field of interest.

Computer Engineering

This is an emerging field that has made our lives easy and hassle-free more than ever before. The inception of Windows in 1995 took the technology by storm by providing easy layout and design where people with no prior knowledge or skills can get a hands-on experience with the learning process of a computer. Computer technology involves both hardware and software used in systems. If playing around with computers incite you anyway and you find it tempting to spend most of your time on a computer, then you can make your feet wet with this field. Danger: Software engineering involves some complex algorithm related to programming that can be very inundated and formidable for you. Before you pick this engineering field, make sure you have some basic knowledge about the programming language used in this field like C, C++, Assembly, Java, HTML, PHP. No prior knowledge about some terms used in software can create trouble in the future and put your whole career on shaky grounds.

Mechanical Engineering

Mechanical engineering is the mother of all engineering. This field covers knowledge about mechanical products, hydraulics, stress measurement, thermodynamics, and everything that involves driving force that requires minimum input and delivers maximum output. Point to Remember. This field is quite rough, boring and requires field work where you need to work with heavy machines all day long. If you don't come with problem-solving ability, then you can find this field quite intimidating. Also, you need to be physically tough to play with and fix the machines. Yes, there are some females who join this field, but after completing graduation, they don't like to continue this field as a career and look for alternatives and end up joining marketing department in the company. Still, it doesn't mean girls are not allowed to pick this field. If they are love to deal with heavy machines, they can opt this field. I can't help pointing out one thing - If you are a female and aim to join this field, you will be only three or four girls in the whole class of scary boys (yes boys look scary when there 40 students in the class and only 4 of them are girls where every boy remains in a continues struggle figuring out how many boys are reserved for each girl :P)

Aeronautical Engineering

This engineering deals with aircraft. If you have a sense of playing with airplane and love getting knowledge about the design, development, and manufacturing of aircraft, then you are advised to pick this field as a career. With every day passing, people love to opt for the airplane as a source of transportation. And this field requires more engineers to handle, fix and maintain the quality of air jets.

Electrical Engineering

This engineering deals with the applications of electrical power. There is a drastic danger involved playing with electrical power especially when your circuits involve high voltage rating as they come with a higher chance of getting short circuit if proper care is not employed during the development these circuits. If you intend to pick this field you need to develop electrical circuits every now and then where you require PCB circuit to connect different components on the board. There are many service provider available in the market. You can not pick the low-quality PCB and put your whole project at risk. PCBWay is the best service provider that provide boards with thick copper that suit and stand fit for your technical requirements where traces are well aligned and connected with each other, setting you fear from the fear of losing connection that can put your project in a total stall. Note: Including these mentioned fields, there are many other fields like chemical engineering, civil engineering, mechatronics engineering, transportation engineering etc. Before you pick any field, make sure the designing principle and work requirement of that particular field is quite in line with your nature and you don't feel bored if you need to work for hours. That's all for today. I hope you have found this article useful. If you are unsure or have any question, you can ask me in the comment section below. I'd love to guide you picking the right field for you as a career. Thanks for reading the article.

Fahrenheit to Kelvin Converter

[vc_row][vc_column width="1/6"][ultimate_spacer height="50"][vc_raw_js]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[/vc_raw_js][/vc_column][vc_column width="2/3"][vc_raw_html]JTNDaWZyYW1lJTIwc3R5bGUlM0QlMjJoZWlnaHQlM0ElMjA3MjBweCUzQiUyMHdpZHRoJTNBJTIwMTAwJTI1JTNCJTIwYm9yZGVyJTNBJTIwbm9uZSUzQiUyMiUyMHNyYyUzRCUyMmh0dHBzJTNBJTJGJTJGd3d3LnRoZWVuZ2luZWVyaW5ncHJvamVjdHMuY29tJTJGRW5naW5lZXJpbmdUb29scyUyRkZhaHJlbmhlaXR0b0tlbHZpbkNvbnZlcnRlciUyRkZhaHJlbmhlaXR0b0tlbHZpbkNvbnZlcnRlcjIucGhwJTIyJTNFJTNDJTJGaWZyYW1lJTNF[/vc_raw_html][/vc_column][vc_column width="1/6"][ultimate_spacer height="50"][vc_column_text][/vc_column_text][vc_column_text][/vc_column_text][/vc_column][/vc_row][vc_row][vc_column][vc_column_text]Hi Friends! Hope you are doing well. The calculator mentioned above shows the Fahrenheit to Kelvin Converter. Simply, put the required value in Kelvin on the box given above that will consequently convert it to Kelvin.

Fahrenheit to Kelvin Converter

We need to convert from Fahrenheit to Kelvin every now and then based on the technical needs and requirements of our work.

Formula Used

Following is used to convert from Fahrenheit to Kelvin scale. K = 5/9 (°F - 32) + 273 The temperature in Kelvin is equal to Fahrenheit minus 32 times 5/9, plus 273.

Example

Convert 270 F to Fahrenheit Just put the value in the given formula K = 5/9 (°F - 32) + 273 as F = 270 So, K = 5/9 (270 - 32) + 273 = 405.3

Table for Common Values

Following table shows some common values used in Fahrenheit to Kelvin converter.  

Fahrenheit Temperature

Fahrenheit can be defined as per the nature of water where it freezes at 32 F and boils at 212 F. Fahrenheit is a scale named after German physicist Daniel Gabriel Fahrenheit who proposed this scale in 1724. He did an experiment on ice-salt mixture, concluding 30 F as the freezing point of water, while the normal body temperature was around 90 F.  

• Nevertheless, these values were not accurate, which made him perform a further experiment to propose the actual value, terming 32 ºF as the freezing point of water and body temperature around 96 ºF. Later, the value of body temperature adjusted, finalizing 98 ºF as the normal body temperature.

Kelvin Temperature

Kelvin is a thermodynamic temperature scale that is mainly based on Absolute Zero. It is denoted by K without any degree sign, unlike Celsius and Fahrenheit scale that come with degree sign on them. The degree sign was omitted to indicate the absolute value on the Kelvin scale while other two scales encompass some arbitrary values in temperature.

• The Kelvin scale is named after physicist Baron Kelvin who mainly proposed the need of “absolute thermodynamic scale.
• The absolute zero is equal to 0 K or – 459.67 F that is defined as a point where all thermal motions seize to flow.

Both Fahrenheit and Kelvin scales come show freezing and boiling points of the water where water freezes at 32 ºF =273.15 K and boils at 212 ºF = 373.15 K 

• Initially, the Kelvin scale was written with a degree sign that made people confuse it with the Rankine scale. In 1968, the degree sign was removed to lay out the explicit different between Kelvin and Rankine scale.

It is important to note that, these temperature scales don't share a common point and some offset is required to be added in the start to make them equal. Also, once some offset is added at the start, both Fahrenheit and Kelvin don't increment with a regular interval, instead show some arbitrary behavior on the scales. That's all for today. I have given you everything you need to convert Fahrenheit to Kelvin. If you are unsure or have any question, you can ask me in the comment section below. I'd love to help you according to the best of my knowledge. Feel free to share your feedback and suggestion, they help us provide you quality work as per your needs and requirements so you keep coming back for what we have to offer. Thanks for reading the article.   [/vc_column_text][/vc_column][/vc_row]

Kelvin to Fahrenheit Converter

[vc_row][vc_column width="1/6"][ultimate_spacer height="50"][vc_raw_js]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[/vc_raw_js][/vc_column][vc_column width="2/3"][vc_raw_html]JTNDaWZyYW1lJTIwc3R5bGUlM0QlMjJoZWlnaHQlM0ElMjA3MjBweCUzQiUyMHdpZHRoJTNBJTIwMTAwJTI1JTNCJTIwYm9yZGVyJTNBJTIwbm9uZSUzQiUyMiUyMHNyYyUzRCUyMmh0dHBzJTNBJTJGJTJGd3d3LnRoZWVuZ2luZWVyaW5ncHJvamVjdHMuY29tJTJGRW5naW5lZXJpbmdUb29scyUyRktlbHZpbnRvRmFocmVuaGVpdENvbnZlcnRlciUyRktlbHZpbnRvRmFocmVuaGVpdENvbnZlcnRlci5waHAlMjIlM0UlM0MlMkZpZnJhbWUlM0U=[/vc_raw_html][/vc_column][vc_column width="1/6"][ultimate_spacer height="50"][vc_column_text][/vc_column_text][vc_column_text][/vc_column_text][/vc_column][/vc_row][vc_row][vc_column][vc_column_text]Hi Friends! Converting temperature from one scale to another is now just one click away. The table given above shows the calculator for Kelvin to Fahrenheit converter. Just put the required values in the table that will convert it to Fahrenheit in one go.

Kelvin to Fahrenheit Converter

Kelvin and Fahrenheit are the two scales widely used for temperature measurement. Before you convert any value from one scale to another, you must know the formula behind converting that values.

Formula Used

Following formula is used to convert Kelvin into Fahrenheit scale. ºF = K x 9/5 - 459.67 The temperature in Fahrenheit is equal to Kelvin times 9/5 minus 459.67.

Example

Convert 230 K to Fahrenheit Just put the value in the given formula

ºF = K x 9/5 - 459.67

as K = 300

So, ºF = 230 x 9/5 -459.67 = -45.67

Table for Common Values

Following table shows some common values used in Kelvin to Fahrenheit converter.

Kelvin Temperature

Kelvin is a thermodynamic temperature scale, based on Absolute Zero – the temperature at which all thermal motion stops to flow. It is denoted by K and is not written in terms of degree sign unlike other two scales Fahrenheit and Celsius that are widely written with a degree sign. The value of absolute zero is - 0 K or - 459.67 F The freezing and boiling point of water can be expressed in Kelvin and Fahrenheit scale and are described with the following values.

Freezing Point of Water = 273.15 K = 32 ºF

Boiling Point of Water = 373.15 K = 212 ºF

• The Kelvin scale is named after physicist Baron Kelvin who pointed out the need of “absolute thermodynamic scale.

The Kelvin scale was written with degree sign before 1968, that made people skeptical where there were unable to find the difference between Rankine and Kelvin scale and most of them considered K with degree sign as a Rankine Scale.

• In order to remove any confusion, the degree sign was omitted in 1968. Additionally, degree sign indicates the arbitrary value as in case of Celsius and Fahrenheit, while K value truly paints the absolute value.

Fahrenheit Temperature

Fahrenheit can be defined as a temperature at which water freezes at 32 F and boils at 212 F, indicating boiling and freezing point values are equally separated by 180 points. Fahrenheit and Kelvin are somehow related to each other with some offset value. The point worth mentioning here is that all these values are calculated and measured at sea level with standard atmospheric pressure. Origin Fahrenheit is a term named after German physicist Daniel Gabriel Fahrenheit who introduced this scale in 1724. He proposed the scale based on the ice-salt mixture, defining 30 F as the freezing point of water, while the normal body temperature was around 90 F.  These were based on the initial experiment, that came with some flaws, and failed to predict the actual freezing point of water and body temperature. However, once these terms came to sheer limelight and started using as a fixed reference for a thermometer, these values were adjusted, stating 32 ºF as the freezing point of water and 98 ºF as the normal body temperature. That's all for today. I hope you have found this article informative. If you are unsure or have any question, you can ask me in the comment section below. I'd love to help you in any way I can. Thanks for reading the article. [/vc_column_text][/vc_column][/vc_row]