The Engineering Projects

Introduction to BF259

Hello Friends! I am back again to fill your appetite with more knowledge and skills. Today, I am going to explain the details on the Introduction to BF259. It is a bipolar NPN (negative-positive-negative) silicon transistors which comes in metal casing. It consists of one P layer that lies between the two layers of N doped semiconductor. I am going to cover all aspects related to this bipolar transistor. Let's get started and have a look, how it works and what are the applications it finds useful.

Introduction to BF259

• BF259 is a bipolar silicon transistor which is made up of two N doped layer and one P doped layer.
• It is mainly a three terminal device which consists of emitter base and collector.
• P terminal of the transistor acts like a base while other two sides of P layers act as emitter and collector respectively.
• Small current at the base is used to control a large amount of current at the collector and emitter side.
• The power it can dissipate is 1 W, while transition frequency is about 75 MHZ.
• DC collector current is 100mA.
• Maximum power dissipation across collector is 0.5 W.
• BF259 is also considered as a current operated device.

• Maximum collector base voltage is 300 V and is denoted by Vcb.
• Maximum collector emitter voltage is 300 V and is denoted by Vce.
• It comes with lots of major applications but mainly it is used for switching and amplification purpose.

1. BF259 Pinout

BF259 NPN silicon transistor consists of three terminals. 1: Emitter 2: Base 3: Collector Actual pinout of this NPN transistor is given in the figure below

• The base current is used to control the large amount of current on the collector and emitter side.
• The way the base current impact the emitter and collector current is used for the amplification applications.
• This bipolar transistor will turn ON when current flows from emitter and collector.

2. Mechanical Outline of BF259

The mechanical outline of bipolar silicon transistor BF259 is shown in the figure below:

• All the dimension are given in mm.
• You must take these dimension into consideration before you plan to make a circuit so these dimension properly fit in the circuit.

3. Circuit Diagram of BF259

The circuit symbol of BF259 is shown in the figure below:

• This NPN silicon transistor comes with a positive base side and negative emitter side.
• Emitter current is the sum of base and collector current.
• Small amount of current at the base side is used to handle the large amount of current at the emitter and collector side.
• Main difference between NPN and PNP transistor is, Current will sink into the base side in case of PNP transistor while current from the base side will source to the transistor in case of NPN transistor.
• Transistor current can be found by dividing the collector current to the base current. It is also called beta current and is denoted by ß. Beta has no units as it is a ratio between two currents.
• Value of beta is used for the amplification purpose. Beta value ranges between 20 to 1000, however, its standard value is 200.
• The ratio between collector current to the emitter current is called current gain of the transistor and is denoted by alpha a.
• The value of alpha ranges between 0.95 to 0.99, however, in most of the cases it is considered as 1.

4. Absolute Maximum Rating BF259

The maximum absolute rating of BF259 is shown in the figure below.

• Units of current and voltage are mA and V receptively.
• These rating are important for many engineering projects.

5. Applications

• BF259 is also called high voltage video amplifier and is mostly used for high voltage video output.
• It is also used for the audio output stages.
• These transistors are the main drivers for horizontal deflection circuits.

That's all for today. If you have any question you can easily ask in the comment section below. I'll try my best to help you solve your queries. Your suggestion and feedback will be highly appreciated. Stay tuned for next article.

Introduction to 2n4402

Hey guys! I aspire you a prosperous life filled with joy and happiness. Today, I am going to uncover the details on the Introduction to 2n4402. It is basically a PNP (Positive-Negative-Positive) silicon transistor where N doped layer lies between the two P doped layer. It consists of three terminals i.e. emitter, base, collector. Here N represents the base of the transistor and two P layers represents the emitter and collector respectively. I'm going to cover all aspects related to this transistor. Let's hop on the board and dive in the details of this silicon transistor.

Introduction to 2n4402

• 2n4402 is a bipolar silicon transistor, where one layer of N doped semiconductor is sand-witched between the two layers of P doped semiconductor.
• It works in a way, the small current at the end of the base is used to control a large amount of current at the end of collector and emitter.

• PNP transistor works in a similar way to NPN transistor with the exception of current carriers. In case of NPN transistors, current carriers are electron while current carriers in the case of PNP transistors are holes and direction of current and polarities of voltage will be reversed in this case.
• In PNP transistor, P letter represents the polarity of voltage applied to the emitter which is positive and N letter shows the polarity of voltage applied to the base which is negative. In order to conduct in PNP transistor, Emitter will always be more positive than base and collector.

2n4402 Pinout

2n4402 consists of three pins

• 1: Emitter
• 2: Base
• 3: Collector

 

• Unlike NPN transistors, here current flows from emitter to collector and current carriers are holes.

PNP Circuit Symbol

• Following is the circuit symbol of PNP transistor. It consists of two P layers and one N layer.

 

• The polarity at the emitter side is positive with respect to both base and collector.
• The base of this transistor is negative with respect to emitter.
• Current flowing through the emitter side is the sum of current flowing through collector and base.
• Small amount of current at the base side is used to control the large amount of current at the collector and emitter side.
• PNP and NPN works in similar way with the exception of current direction and medium used for the flow of current.
• In PNP transistor current flows from emitter to collector and current carriers in this case are holes which are collected by the collector.

PNP Transistor Configuration

• Transistor configuration of PNP 2n4402 transistor is shown in the figure below:

• Emitter is positive with respect to collector and base
• Small amount of base current is used to control the large current at the collector and emitter side.
• Current carriers are holes which are collected by the collector.

Transistors as a Matched Switch

• In most of the cases, PNP transistors replace the NPN transistor with the only exception in the direction of current and polarities of voltages.
• Like NPN transistor, PNP transistor can also be used as a switching device.
• You might think what is the point of using PNP transistor while there are lots of NPN transistors out there that can be used as a switch or for amplification purpose. However, taking two types of transistors come with a lot of advantage in designing the power amplifier circuit.
• Class B-amplifiers come with a two pair of NPN and PNP transistor, where both transistors are used to control the current flowing in both directions at any instant of time. Transistors are called "Complementary Transistors" which use both NPN and PNP transistor of identical characteristics.
• In Class B-amplifiers, both transistors work in a similar way i.e. NPN transistors conducts for the positive half cycle and PNP transistor conducts for the negative half cycle of the transistor. This results in flowing the power at the load out put in both directions. PNP transistors will switch on when it sinks current to its base side and it will switch off when current at the base side stops to flow.

Applications of 2n4402

• These transistors are mainly used for voltage and power amplification.
• In combination with NPN transisters, these PNP transistors form a perfect bond through which current flows alternately from both sides of NPN and PNP transistors.

That's all for today. I hope you'd enjoyed our article. If you have any query or question you can easily ask in the comment section below. I'd be glad to help you in this regard. Your suggestion and feedback will be highly appreciated. Stay tuned for next article.

Introduction to Resistors

Hey guys! I hope you are doing good and having fun. Today, I am going to unlock the details on the Introduction to Resistors. Resistor is a two terminal component that is used to restrict the flow of current. Resistors are widely used in electrical circuits. They come in different forms ranging from variable resistors to fixed resistors. Depending on the feature of resistors, both are used in many applications. I am going to cover all aspects relating to resistors. Let's get started.

Introduction to Resistors

• A resistor is a two-terminal device that is used to resist the flow of current. It is one of the most commonly used components in electrical circuits.
• Resistance of any resister is described in ohms. Ohm is denoted by the Greek letter omega. Each resister has a different value of resistance which tells us how strongly it resists the flow of current. More the value of resistance more is the capability of resisting the current.
• Resistance will be considered as one ohm if the potential difference between the two ends of the conductor is 1 V and a current flowing through it is 1 Ampere.
• Resistance can be derived from Ohm's law which indicates voltage is directly proportional to the current flowing through the conductor.

V= I * R

• Each resistor comes with two wires, also called as leads. Between these two leads there lies a ceramic part which actually resists the flow of current. Resistor consists of three colored strips that indicate the value of resistance.
• Some resistors come with four colored strips. In such case, fourth strip indicates the value of tolerance. Tolerance is the value of the deviation of resistance from its given value on the resistor. Gold color of forth strip indicates tolerance is 5% and silver color indicates tolerance is 10%. Where there is no forth strip, tolerance is considered as 20%. Suppose, if resistance has 50-ohm resistance with no forth strip. Then tolerance of such resistor can be 50 ±20%.
• Resistance of any resistor also depends on its resistivity, its length and cross-sectional area.

• Resistors also indicate temperature coefficient. Temperature coefficient is known as a resistance due to the change in temperature. There are two types of temperature coefficients. Positive temperature coefficient and negative temperature coefficient. If resistance increases with the increase in temperature then it is called positive temperature coefficient and if resistance decreases with the decrease in temperature then it is called negative temperature coefficient.

How to Limit Current using Resistance

• Main purpose of resistance is to limit the current flowing through the component.
• Suppose, if we want to connect the LED with the direct DC source i.e. Battery, then it will burn out right away the moment you connect the LED with the battery.
• Because battery will allow a large amount of current to flow through the LED which will burn it out.
• LED can be avoided from any severe damage if we put the resistor between the battery and LED. It will control the amount of current flowing through the LED.
• Value of resistance you use depends on the current rating of the battery. You need to use the resistor with high resistance if current rating of a battery is high.
• We can calculate the resistance by using Ohm's Law. Suppose we have LED that comes with voltage rating of 12 voltage and current rating of 100mA or 0.1 A. From Ohm's Law

V=IR

R= V/I

R=12/0.1= 120 O

• In order to avoid LED from damaging we need resistor with resistance of 120 O

 

Combination of Resistors

Resistors can also be used in combination. There are classified into two types according to their combination.

Resistors in Parallel

• If resistors are connected parallel to each other, then total resistance will be equal to the sum of reciprocal of all resistance.

1/R= 1/R1+1/R2+1/R3............1/Rn

Resistors in Series

• If resistors are connected in series, the total resistance will be equal to the sum of all resistance.

R= R1+R2+R3+R4..........Rn

Power Dissipation

• The power consumed by any resistor at any moment is defined as
• P= VI= V(V/R)= V²/R
• Most of the resistors are classified on their ability of power dissipation. Resistors who dissipate a large amount of energy are called as power resistors and are mostly used in power supplies, power amplifiers, and power conversion circuits.
• Power resistors are physically larger than normal resistors and their value cannot be directly identified by the reading color strip method.
• Resistors pertain to severe damage if their average power dissipation is greater than thier power rating. It results in permanently alternating the resistance.
• Excessive power dissipation can also damage the whole circuit. In order to avoid burning of the circuit, flameproof resistors are used that suddenly open the circuit before power dissipation gets too high.

How to Calculate Resistance of any Resistor

There are two different ways to calculate the resistance:

Reading the Color Bands

• First method to calculate the resistance is by reading the color bands of the resistor.
• Each strip of color on the resistor represents a specific digit.
• Different colors corresponding to their digit values are given below.

• In the above figure, the first strip is brown and corresponding digit to brown is 1.
• The second strip is black, and the corresponding digit to black is 0.
• The third strip is orange and the corresponding digit to orange is three which actually shows the number of zeros.
• Forth strip is made of gold which indicates tolerance is ±5%.
• So overall resistance of this resistor is 10,000±5 % ohm.

Using a Multimeter

• Second method to measure the resistance is by using the multimeter as an ohmmeter. Mainly multimeter performs three functions. It is used to measure current voltage and resistance.
• Put the black probe on the COM port of multimeter. And put the red probe into the VOmA.
• You can measure the resistance of any resistor by holding the resistor with the two separate probes of the multimeter. Before calculating the resistance, you need to set the dial to ohm which is denoted on the multimeter by the symbol O.

 

Types of Resistors

Resistors come in different forms, sizes, and shapes. Resistors are used in different applications depending on the current rating voltage and resistance. Let's discuss resistor types and their applications. Resistors are mainly classified into two types:

1. Linear Resistors
2. Non-Linear Resistors

1. Linear Resistors

• Resistors are termed as linear resistors where current is directly proportional to the applied voltage.
• Resistance of these resistors changes with the change in temperature and voltage.
• In order words, resistors which follow Ohm's law are linear resistors.
• Linear resistors are further classified into two types
  • Fixed Resistors
  • Variable Resistors

1.1 Fixed Resistors 1.1.1 Carbon Composition Resistor

• Carbon composition resistors comprise of rigid resisting element incorporated with lead wire. The resistor body is covered with plastic or paint.
• The resistive element at the mid of the lead wires contains fine carbon and insulating material which is usually ceramic. The resistance of such resistors is measured as the ratio of ceramic to carbon.
• Resistance value widely depends on the concentration of carbon value. More is the concentration of carbon, lesser will be the resistance.
• Carbon composition resisters come with poor stability and 5% tolerance.
• These resistors are become obsolete because of their high price but still they are used in wielding controls and power supplies.
• Resistance of such resistors varies from few ohms to 22 mega-ohms.

1.1.2 Carbon Pile Resistor

• A carbon pile resistor consists of layers of carbon discs that are placed between two metal plates.
• Resistance between the plates can be changed by changing the clamping pressure.
• These resistors are widely used in radio transmitters.
• A carbon pile resistor can also be used in generators, where it adjusts the current to keep the voltage in certain state.

1.1.3 Carbon Film Resistor

• A carbon film resistor consists of amorphous carbon which provides relatively large resistance.
• These resistors encompass low noise as compared to carbon composition resistor.
• A carbon film resistor comes with a power rating that ranges between 0.125 to 5 W with resistance 1 ohm to 10 mega-ohm. These resistors are used in areas where high stability is required.

1.1.4 Thick Film Resistor

• Thick film resistors come in the shape of SMD(Surface mount device).
• Both, think and thin film resistors are manufactured in a same way but main difference is the resistive element that is used in thick film resisters is relatively very large than used in thin films.

1.1.5 Thin Film Resistor

• Thin film resistor consists of ceramic rod and resistive material.
• A very thin layer of conducting material is being placed on the insulating rod that is made of glass or ceramic material. This method of making thin film is called vacuum deposition.
• When thin film resistor is manufactured, it doesn't give an accurate value of resistance.
• Resistance value can be made accurate by the process called laser trimming.
• These resistors come in the tolerance range that lies between 1% to 5% and encompass much less noise level than thick film resistors.
• Compared to thick film resistors, thin film resistors are highly expensive.

1.1.6 Wire Wound Resistors

• Wire wound resistors are widely used in many electrical applications. They are manufactured by winding a metal wire around fibreglass core or ceramic material. Whole assembly is being formed where two ends of wire are welded with rings and are covered with high layer of molded plastic or paint.
• These resistors have capability to bear high temperature upto 450 ºC.
• As wire wound resistors are same like coil so they inherit high value of inductance as compared to other resistors.
• Both, carbon composition resistors and wire wound resistors are used in same application except where high frequency is required. High frequency response of carbon composition resistors is better than wire wound resistors.

1.2 Variable Resistors

• Resistors are termed as variable resistors whose values can be adjusted manually by screw, knob, or dial.
• These resistors come with sliding arm that is attached to the shaft.
• Resistance value can be changed by rotating the sliding arm.
• They are mainly divided into two types:
  • Rheostats
  • Potentiometer

1.2.1 Rheostats

• Rheostat resistors are also known as variable wound resistors or tapped resistors.
• Rheostat is a manual operated three terminal device which is mainly used to restrict the current value.
• In order to make rheostat, Nichrome resistance is being wound around a ceramic core, then they are placed in a covered shell.

  1.2.2 Potentiometer

• A potentiometer is a three terminal device that consists of tapping points that are adjusted by a rotation of shaft.
• It can be used to provide a potential difference between the two terminal connected to the tapping points.
• They are widely used for volume control in many radio receivers.
• Potentially there is no difference between rheostat and potentiometer, however, both are used for difference purpose.
• Rheostat is used for controlling the level of current in the circuit while potentiometer is used for controlling the voltage in the circuit.

 

2. Non-Linear Resistors

• Resistors are termed as non-linear resistors where they do not pertain to follow ohm's law but their value of resistances changes with the slight change in temperature or current.
• Non-linear resistors are further divided into two types:
  • Thermisters
  • Varisters

2.1 Thermisters

• Resisters are termed as thermisters, if current flowing through it changes with the change in temperature.
• Thermister is basically a two terminal device which uses variable resister and indicates even a slight change in temperature.
• In thermister, resistance and temperature are inversely proportional to each other.

2.2 Varisters

• Resisters are termed as varisters if current flowing through it changes with the change in applied voltage.
• These resistors are sensitive to voltage and avoid the circuits from getting high voltage spikes.
• They are used to maintain the voltage to a required level.

Applications of Resistors

Resisters are widely used in many electrical circuits. Following are the main applications of resistors.

• They are used to limit current in order to avoid short circuit
• They are used to control voltage in order to avoid high spikes at the end of out put voltage
• Used in many electronic industries
• Temperature can also be controlled using these resistors
• In home electronic appliances like heater and iron

That's all for today. I have tried my best to cover as many aspects as possible relating to resistors. However, if still you feel any doubt or query in understanding the concept of resistors, you can always ask me in the comment section below. I'll be glad to help you in this regard. Thanks for reading the article. Give your feedback, how do you like our articles what are the suggestions you would like to give that can help in crafting the articles in better way? Stay tuned for next article! Have a blessed day ahead!

Introduction to Buck Converter

Hey Guys! Hope you all are doing great and having fun. Today, I am going to discuss the details on the Introduction to Buck Converter. It is a power converter which is mainly used to stepping down the voltage from its input to the output load. It mainly consists of two semiconductors and one energy storing components which can be either capacitor or inductor. It works best in the circuits where electrical isolation is not required.

Introduction to Buck Converter

• Buck converters are power converters which are mainly used for converting high voltage to the low voltage. These converters are highly efficient, showing almost 90% of efficiency.
• They are useful for performing a special task like converting the huge supply voltage of 12 V in the computer to 1.8 V for making it useful for operating small components like USB, CPU, and DRAM.
• Transistor used in buck converter act as a switching device. Obtaining a continuous output is the main purpose of buck converter which can be achieved by using the energy stored in the capacitor.
• Transistor switches between on and off at high frequency. Energy stored in the capacitor is mainly used in the buck converter during the off condition of the transistor, making it useful for obtaining a continuous output.
• Circuit diagram of a buck converter is given below:

   

• Buck converter is mainly called as a DC to DC converter. Source input can either be obtained directly from DC source or from rectified AC source.
• After getting DC source, it is passed through a switching transistor which converts it AC source. Eventually, the AC source is converted to DC source at the output voltage.

1. Buck Converter Working Principle

• Buck converter consists of switching transistor, diode, and energy storing elements such as capacitor or inductor. Transistor switches between on and off continuously. When the transistor switch is turned on, it is denoted by T(on) and when it is turned off, it is denoted by T(off). Duty cycle can be obtained by the dividing the time when switch is turned on with the total time of the cycle

D = T(on)/T

• Inductors works in both ways i.e. it opposes the current from changing its direction and also as an energy storing element. Energy is stored in the inductor which prevents the output from getting too high and that energy is released when the transistor is switched to off condition.

If Transistor is Switched ON

• When transistor is switched on, current will flow from the inductor L. Current flowing through the load is being restricted by the inductor and a surplus amount of energy will be stored in the inductor. Circuit diagram of a buck converter is shown in the figure given below when the transistor is switched on.

• The diode which is reverse biased won't take part in the operation of the buck converter as there is large positive voltage appear to the cathode part of the diode. When the switch is closed the voltage across inductor will be

V(Inductor) = V(in) - V(out)

• The capacitor using in this circuit diagram will continuously charge up to the maximum value and releases its energy when the transistor switches to off condition.

If Transistor is Switched OFF

When transistor switches to off condition, the diode available in the buck converter turns to forward biased, making its cathode negative and anode side positive. Circuit diagram of the buck converter is shown in the figure given below when transistor is switched off.

• When transistor is switched off, the inductor will automatically change its polarity with respect to the polarity given in transistor on condition. Now, the voltage across the inductor is also called back emf and it will give its energy back to the circuit during off condition. Here V(inductor) = - V(out)
• Sometimes we need minimum output at the output voltage, in this case, current flowing through the inductor becomes zero. When it falls below zero, it results in automatically discharing the capacitor energy which is stored when the transistor is operated in on condition. When capacitor is completely discharged, it automatically erupts the high switching losses. Pulse frequency modulation is used to avoid such losses.
• The average value of energy stored in inductor will always remain same at the end of the cycle.
• When output begins to fall, the only source of energy will be the energy from the capacitor, causing the current to flow through load and also preventing it from going too high.
• We get the output in the ripple form, instead of getting in square form. And can be defined as

V(out) = V(in) * T(on)/ T

Here T(on) is a time duration of the cycle when the transistor is on and T is the total time of the cycle.

• • Ripple formed in buck converter shows that voltage goes high at the on state and drops down at off state.

2. Examining the current waveform during overall cycle

Let us examine the current wave form of diode current, inductor current and input current during overall cycle. This diagram clearly shows that inductor current is equal to the sum of diode and input/switch current.

• During whole cycle input current will be much less than the output current, resulting in stepping down the voltage at the output. Notice that, assuming the ideal conditions, the overall power of the cycle will remain constant. i.e. V(in)*I(in) = V(out)*I(out)
• However, getting perfect circuit is not possible in reality due to some energy losses. Maximum efficiency that practical buck converters exhibit is about 85%.

3. Applications of Buck Converters

Buck converters exhibit a wide range of application depending on its efficiency and durability. Some of its main applications are given below.

USB ON-the-GO

USB On-the-GO is mainly used for connecting the mouse, keyboard and other useful devices to the smartphone. The main purpose of buck converter using in USB is to draw power from the USB and delivers it to the smartphone. Hence, it is the main source of regulating the power in both directions.

• When smartphone is plugged into charging, the buck converter is used to charge the lithium battery inside the smartphone,
• When some mice or keyboard is connected to the smartphone, buck converter works in a reverse order and draws power from the lithium battery and delivers it to the keyboard or mouse connected to the smartphone.

POL (Point of Load) converter for Laptops

• POL, also known as a voltage regulator, is a converter that is widely used in laptops and desktop computers. It is very useful in operating the motherboard at low voltage.
• Compressors are very delicate devices fixed in the laptops and even a fraction of the increase in voltage can damage its overall performace and quality. So, buck converter in the laptops does its job very nicely by maintaining the voltage in the processor as low as 1.8V.

Solar Chargers

• Buck converters are widely used in solar chargers. They often come with a built-in microcontroller which allows the buck converter to draw maximum power and helps in charging the battery in limited time possible.

Quad-copters

• Quad-copters come with a highly efficient buck converter for dropping down the input voltage. Quad-copter mostly uses DC power supply such as small batteries which are placed in a series. Normally 5 to 6 batteries are used to make quad-copter fully operational. These batteries provide voltage that ranges between 6 to 25 V.
• Buck converter in the batteries converts that voltage to 3.3 V for making it useful for flight controller which is a backbone of quad-copter.

This is the brief overview of buck converter, its working principle, and applications. I have tried my best to cover as many aspects as possible. However, if you still think some of your questions went unanswered, you can connect me in the comment section below. I will try my best to resolve all of your queries relating to buck converters. Will see you all in the next article. Stay Tuned!

Basic Electronic Components used for Circuit Designing

Hey Fellas! Hope you are enjoying your life and making most out of it. Today I’m going to give you a brief Introduction on the Basic Electronic Components used for Circuit Designing. You cannot excel and grow in an electrical field if you have no idea about basic components used in circuit designing.  Don’t you worry, I have got you covered. I have tried my best to make it easy for you in understanding the basic components and what they do? So, let’s get started with Basic Electronic Components used for Circuit Designing:

Basic Electronic Components used for Circuit Designing

A simple electrical circuit consists of resister, capacitors, inductors, transistors, diodes and integrated circuits. These basic electronic components are connected by conductive wires. Current can easily flow between these wires in order to put electrical components in working conditions. You should also have a look at these different types of electronics projects, in which these basic electronic components are used a lot.

1. Resistor

Resistor is considered as a fundamental element in circuit designing.

• As the name suggests, it is used for creating resistance in the flow of current. It is widely used in many electrical and electronics components.

• Some of the elements in electronics devices are too delicate and they can burn out with a sudden increase in the flow of current. Resistor works perfectly by preventing the current from getting too high.
• The resistance of any resister is measured in ohms. The number of resisters used in electronic circuits depends on the measure of current you want to restrict, flowing through the circuit. More the resistance more is the capacity of resisting current from the circuit.

   

2. Capacitor

A capacitor is the second most commonly used component in the circuit designing.

• Working principle of a capacitor is same like a battery. It is used for the storage of electrical charge. Some circuits are designed in a way, they don’t get energy directly from DC source, DC source first charge the capacitor and output we get is basically the energy given by the capacitor.
• Capacitors come in a number of forms, but most common forms are Ceramic Disc and Electrolyte. The capacitance of a capacitor is measured in microfarad and is denoted by µF.

3. Inductor

• An inductor is a simple coil of wire used in many electrical circuits. When a current flows through the inductor it stores energy in the magnetic field of the inductor.
• Inductor allows DC to pass through it while it blocks AC source. It is mostly used in filters for separating the signals of different frequencies.

4. Diode

• A diode is a component that allows the current to flow in one direction only. It mainly consists of anode and cathode.
• Current will only flow when a positive voltage is applied to the anode side and negative voltage is applied to the cathode side. Current won’t flow in reverse order.

5. LED

• LED is a light emitting diode which works only when current flows through it. It is mainly used for indicating if the circuit is working properly.
• When we connect LED in series with the circuit and it emits light, it shows the circuit is working in perfect order.

6. Transistor

• Transistor is more like a switching device mainly used for switching and amplification purpose. It consists of three elements i.e. emitter, base, collector. A small voltage of 0.7 V between base and emitter, turns it on.
• A small amount of current on the base side is used for controlling a large amount of current on the emitter and collector side. This is the property used for amplification purpose.
• Transistor comes in two main types, NPN and PNP transistor.

7. Integrated Circuit

• An Integrated Circuit is a complete circuit that consists of transistor, diodes and other elements. All these elements are placed on the small chip of silicon. Integrated circuits are widely used in modern electronic devices such as laptops and cell phones.

8. Relay

• A replay is a simple switch that prevents bigger circuits from damaging.
• It works as an electromagnetic switch which gets triggered when a small amount of current flows through it.
• A small amount of current in the relay creates a magnetic field around the coil which is then used to turning off and on a large amount of current.

9. Battery

• DC battery is a main source of supply to operate the electrical circuits. It converts chemical energy into electrical energy that allows the current to flow.
• Different batteries can be connected in series in order to get more voltage for an electrical circuit.

That's all for today. I have covered almost all the basic components needed for circuit designing. If you have any question you can ask in the comment section below. I'd love to help you in this regard. I hope you have enjoyed the article. Brace yourself for next article. Stay tuned!

Introduction to 2n5320

Hey Fellas! Hope you are doing great. Today I am going to give you the details on Introduction to 2n5320. It is basically a Bipolar NPN (Negative Positive Negative) Transistor (BJT), which contains two layers of N-doped semiconductor and one layer of P-doped semiconductor. P, layer lies between two N layers. Here P represents the Base of the transistor and two N layers show emitter and collector respectively. This NPN transistor has a wide range of applications. It is mainly used for power amplification and switching purpose.You should also have a look at Introduction to BC547 which is also an NPN transistor. So, let's get started with Introduction to 2n5320:

Introduction to 2n5320

• 2n5320 is a bipolar Switching Silicon transistor, which is mostly used for amplification purpose.
• 2n5360 is an NPN transistor, where P doped layer exists between two N doped layers.
• In this transistor, collector supply voltage will be positive with respect to the emitter and is denoted by Vce.
• The transistor action is triggered by the free movement of electrons from its base. Actually, these electrons work like a bridge between emitter and collector.

• The voltage between collector and emitter is 75 Volt, while the voltage between base and collector is 100 Volt.
• Voltage between emitter and base is 6 V.
• Maximum DC collector current is 700 mV.
• I have shown the 2n5320 in both of its symbolical and actual form in below figure:

1. 2n5320 Pinout

2n5320 basically consists of three pins which are as follows:

• 1: Emitter
• 2: Base
• 3: Collector

Actual pinout of 2n5320 transistor is shown in the figure below:

• The small base current is used to control a large amount of current at emitter and collector.
• The control of base current on emitter and collector is basically the backbone of transistor amplifying properties.
• The transistor is considered as fully ON when a large amount of current flows through collector and emitter.
• 2n5320 is also known as a current operated device.

2. Circuit Diagram of 2n5320

• The Circuit Diagram of 2n5320 is shown in the figure given below:

• As it is NPN transistor so voltage is negative at the emitter side and positive at the base side. The base-emitter voltage can be described as Vbe.
• One thing you must take into consideration, the base voltage will always be positive with respect to the emitter.
• The current flowing through the emitter is a combination of base and collector current.
• When we divide collector current to the base current, we get the transistor current in this switching bipolar transistor and is denoted by beta ß. As it is a ratio between two current so it encompasses no units.
• The standard value of this beta is 200. The ratio between collector current and base current is actually used for amplification purpose. The value of beta ranges from 20 to 1000. We can see the value of beta from the datasheet of different manufacturers but it generally ranges between 50 to 200.
• The current gain of this transistor is defined as the ratio between collector current to the emitter current. It is represented as alpha. The value of alpha lies between 0.95 to the 0.99 and most of the cases it is considered as unity.

3. Pin Ratings of 2n5320

• The Pin ratings of 2n5320 bipolar transistor is given below.

 

• Here voltage is represented in voltage and current is denoted by ampere.
• It is a low-frequency device that has the current rating of 2A. The semiconductor used in this bipolar transistor is made up of silicon that’s why it is mostly called Switching Silicon Bipolar Transistor.

4. Mechanical Outline of 2n5320

• Mechanical Outline of 2n5320 is shown in the below figure:

• These mechanical outlines are of quite importance especially in professional projects.
• But if you working on some student engineering project then these are not for you.

5. Applications

2n5320 Bipolar Transistor has many applications in real life. Some of them are given below.

• It is used for amplification purpose.
• Used for many switching applications.
• It also works as a low frequency device.

So, that was all about 2n5320. I hope you will get something out of it. If you wanna ask something about this NPN transistor then ask in comments adn I will try my best to resolve your issues. Will meet you guys in the next tutorial. Have a good day !!! :)

Introduction to Transformer

Hey Fellas! I warmly welcome you to be here. Today I'm going to discuss the Introduction to Transformer. I'll unlock the complete details of its working principle, construction, types, and applications. It is widely used for the transformation of electrical energy. The inception of transformation has revolutionized the electrical field and made our life easy more than ever before. Because of its extensive advantages, it works as a core for electrical engineering. In today's tutorial, I have explained in detail all about Transformer but still if you got trouble anywhere, then you can ask in comments and I will try my best to resolve them. So, now let's get started with Introduction to Transformer:

1. Introduction to Transformer

• Transformer is a simple static device that helps in transferring the electrical power between two circuits.
• Transformer works on the Faraday’s Law of Electromagnetic Induction.

Faraday’s Law of Electromagnetic Induction:

• It is a process by which primary coil induces a voltage into the secondary coil with the help of magnetic induction. The coil windings are electrically isolated and magnetically connected around a common circuit called core.

• If we apply varying current in one coil, it results in creating a magnetic field and automatically induces the varying voltage in the secondary coil.
• Hence power is transmitted from one coil to another through the magnetic field.
• A slight change in current in transformers helps in increasing and decreasing the AC voltage in many electrical power applications.

Transformers are available in different sizes weighing from cubic centimeters to hundreds of tons. Without transformers it would be very difficult to transfer the power generated at the grid station to the area around the city. The high voltage and current produced at grid station can be reduced to low level which in turn helps in operating the electrical appliances at home.

2. Construction of Transformer

• A simple static transformer is a linear device that consists of coils that are mutually inductive and steel core.
• The windings in the coil are insulated from each other and from the steel core.
• The whole assembly of windings and steel core are encased in a device called tank.
• The major purpose of the tank is to insulate the core assembly from the coil windings.

• In order to take out the terminals of transformer specific bushings made up of capacitor are used.
• Added amount of oil conservator is also used in the tank which provides cooling and reduces friction.

Almost all types of transformers come with a core that is made up of laminated sheets of steel. In order to achieve continuous magnetic path, air gap between the sheets must be kept minimum. Laminated sheets of steel, with the added amount of silicon, are heat treated in order to provide low hysteresis losses and low eddy current and high permeability.

3. Mathematical Formulas for Transformer

Till now, we have seen the basic introduction and construction of Transformers, but when it comes to designing, then we have to make some mathematical derivations. In this section of this tutorial, I am gonna focus on some basic concepts of Transformers and will also share their mathematical formulas.

Turn Ratio

• Transformer has a turn ratio which dictates the operation of transformer and the value of output voltage applied to the secondary windings.
• Turn ratio is defined as a number of turns of the primary coils divided by the number of turns of secondary coil.

TR = Np /Ns

If Ns > Np then it is called step up transformer

If Np > Ns then it is called step down transformer

Transformation Ratio

• Transformation Ratio is defined as the secondary voltage divided by the primary voltage. And it is denoted by K.

K = Vs / Vp or Ns/Np

Transformer EMF Equation

• If we apply electrical source on the primary side of transformer, it will produce the magnetizing flux across the core of transformer.
• It must be a rate of change of flux that is connected to both, primary and secondary coils.
• According to Faraday’s Law of Electromagnetic Induction, changing flux in the coil must induce EMF in it.

• Suppose the flux created forms a sinusoidal function. As it is a rate of change of flux so it must be derivative of sine function which is a cosine function.
• We can easily get the rms value of the induced EMF if we get the rms value of cosine wave and multiply it with the number of turns of coils.

• Now let's have a look at the Faraday's Law of Electromagnetic Induction:

4. Types of Transformers

There are many types of transformers available in market but we can't cover them all in this tutorial. So, I am gonna just focus on those, which are used most commonly. Transformer can be differentiated into following types:

Step Up Transformer

Transformer is known as step up transformer if the number of turns of coil in secondary coil is greater than the number of turns of coil in primary coil. In other words, when transformer is used to increase the voltage on the secondary coil it is called step up transformer.

Step Down Transformer

Similarly, a transformer is known as step down transformer if the number of turns of coil in primary coil is greater than the number of turns of coil in the primary coil. Or if transformer is used to decrease the voltage on the secondary coil, it is called step down transformer.

Impedance Transformer

A transformer is called impedance transformer if it is used to deliver the same voltage to the secondary windings as applied to the primary windings. Hence output remains constant with respect to the input. This type of transformer is used for the isolation of electrical circuits or impedance matching.

Core Type Transformer

Core type transformer comes with a cylindrical coils that are form-wound. In this transformer, windings are encircled around some part of core. The cylindrical coils are insulated from each other with the help of paper or cloth and encompass high mechanical strength. Low voltage windings are arranged in a specific way to provide quick insulation with the laminated core of steel. A core type transformer is shown in the figure given below. L.V and H.V are described as Low voltage windings and High voltage windings respectively.

Shell Type Transformer

Shell type transformer comes with a steel core that covers some part of the coil windings. The coils in this transformer are also form-wound and are arranged in different layers that are insulated from each other. Such type of transformer comes in two shapes i.e. rectangular type or distributed type. It is like a disc arranged with insulated spaces, providing a horizontal cooling. Both, rectangular and distributed types of shell transformer are given in the figures below. In order to provide compact look and minimum movement, this transformer comes with a rigid bracing that combines the whole transformer at one place. Main purpose of bracing is to control vibration and provide minimum noise during operation. Both, shell type and core type transformers, encompass same characteristics but they are different with respect to cost. Shell type transformer is high in demand due to high voltage and the construction of its design. Things that are taken into consideration before buying the transformer include, heat distribution, cooling process, weight, voltage rating and kilo-watt ampere rating. Transformer comes with a tank, brushes, and oil. The oil used in the transformer provides cooling and provides insulation between steel core and coil windings. Sometimes, it happens, the tank used in the transformer doesn’t provide the required cooling effect. This is due to the quality of oil used in the tank. In order to provide accurate cooling and quick insulation, oil must be free from sulfur or alkalies. If we leave alkalies and sulfur in the oil, it causes the oil to moist, hence damaging the quality of oil quite significantly. Even the small amount of this moisture is enough to effect the quality of the oil. If operational tank doesn’t provide required cooling, then we use radiators on the sides of tank. This provides proper cooling and helps in maintaining the temperature of transformer to the required level. In order to make oil free from any moisture, tank must be sealed air-tight. This is easy to apply on the small transformers. In case of huge transformer, providing an air-tight sealing is difficult to implement, hence big chambers are used to maintain the temperature of transformers. These chambers refrain the moisture from adding in the oil. Oil decomposes quickly when it encounters with oxygen during the heating process, leaving a dark material on the transformer, which eventually, can damage the cooling process.

5. Energy Losses in Transformers

Transformers are used for the transformation of electrical energy. The coils used in the transformer are entitled to many energy losses. Some of them are given below:

Heat Loss

Heat loss is a common factor in transformer. Some form of energy is used to reduce the resistance in the transformer in order to provide steady flow of electrical energy from one coil to another. When it escapes from coils of the transformer, this energy is converted into heat which erupts the energy loss. Heat loss can be minimized by using the good conducting material in the coil or by using wires of high cross sectional area. Eddy current also pertains to heat loss. When primary coil is connected to the electrical power, it induces the alternating magnetic field in the primary coil. Same magnetic field also passes through the steel core, helps in inducing the small current in the same core which erupts heat losses. In order to overcome heat loss, steel core must be laminated perfectly. This can be achieved by placing an insulating strips in the strips of the core material. Without effecting magnetic field, these insulating strips results in reducing the eddy current.

Hysteresis Loss

Hysteresis Loss also occurs due to magnetic field passing through the core material. When magnetic field passes through the core, the core becomes real magnet with separate north and South Pole. As the magnetic field changes its direction it also allows to magnetize the core material in another direction. Energy loss happens when core is magnetized in one direction and resists the core to magnetize in another direction. Surplus energy is required to magnetize the core material in other direction. Only way to minimize the hysteresis loss is to use the core material that is made up of good magnetizing material such as iron, which can be re-magnetized easily than other materials.

6. Applications of Transformer:

After reading the whole article, you have got the clear idea what is the basic purpose of electrical transformer. It can be used in our homes, apartments, buildings and electrical appliances i.e. where electrical power is required according to our needs and requirements. Following are the some applications of transformer:

• It can be used to alternate the amount of voltage and current. When current increases, voltage decrease and when voltage increases, then current decreases i.e. P = V * I
• Value of reluctance, capacitance and resistance can be controlled by the help of transformer.
• It finds many applications when it prohibits the flow of DC current from one circuit to another.
• Transformer is also used as an impedance device where same amount of voltage is required to the output as implied to the input. Hence, it also allows the two circuit be electrically isolated.

So, that was all about Transformers. I hope you have all enjoyed it. If you have any problem then ask in comments. Will meet you guys in the next tutorial. Till then take care and have fun !!! :)