The Engineering Projects

Introduction to LM324

Hello everyone! I hope you all will be absolutely fine and having fun. Today, I am going to elaborate about the Introduction to LM324. It is an Operational Amplifier (Op-amp) consists of four channels. Its a low cost device having true differential inputs.For single supply applications LM 324 are superior to the other operational amplifiers. LM-324 is capable of operating at the minimum voltage up to 3V and at the high voltage levels up to 32V. One of the major advantage of LM-324 is that common mode input range includes negative supply which eliminates the need of external biasing. Negative power supply voltage is also included in output voltage range. This device is lead (Pb) free, halogen free and RoHS compliant. It consists of four amplifiers per package. LM 324 real life applications include conventional amplifier circuits, transducer amplifier, DC gain blocks etc. Further detail about LM324 e.g. its pins configuration, thermal and electrical characteristics, its features and applications will be explained in detail later in this tutorial. [otw_is sidebar=otw-sidebar-7]

Introduction to LM324

LM324 is an operational amplifier consists of four channels. It is most commonly used amplifier due to its low cost factor. It consists of four amplifiers per package and is superior to other amplifiers for single supply applications. Negative power supply included in common mode input and output range eliminates the need of external biasing. It has several different applications e.g. DC gain blocks, transducer amplifiers, conventional amplifier circuits etc. LM 324 is shown in the figure given below.

1. LM324 Pinout

• We must know the description of each pin before using any of the devices for its appropriate use.
• LM-324 has fourteen (14) pins in total having different individual functions associated with them.
• All of the fourteen pins along with their names are given in chronological order in the table shown below.

2. LM324 Configurations

• Each of the pin should be clearly labeled, if someone is going to use any device for the first time or after a long time.
• Properly labeled pinout diagram of any device results in better understanding of its functionality.
• So, I have made a completely labeled diagram for LM 324 pinout, you can see it in the figure shown below.

3. LM324 Packages

• LM-324 has four different type of packages having different individual dimensions.
• The packages include TSSOP, SOIC, CDIP and PDIP.
• ALl of the above packages are given along with their dimensions, in the table shown below.

4. LM324 Ratings

• The current, power and voltage ratings of any device indicates its power requirements i.e. the amount of current and voltage at which a particular device starts its operation properly.
• The current, voltage and power ratings of LM-324 are provided in the table shown below.

5. LM324 Schematic Diagram

• The schematic diagram of a device helps to understand its internal functionality.
• I have provided a schematic diagram of LM-324 as shown in the figure below.

• From the above figure, you can see that LM 324 consists of four amplifiers per package.
• The inputs of these amplifiers are connected to the pin number 2, 3, 5, 6, 9, 10, 12 and 13  respectively.
• The output of these amplifiers are connected to 1, 7, 8 and 14 pins.

6. LM324 Applications

There are different LM324 real life applications, a few of which are given below.

• Conventional amplifier circuits
• Transducer amplifier.
• DC gain blocks.

6. LM324 Proteus Simulation

• You should have a look at Automatic Street Light Project in Proteus, I have used LM324 in this simulation.
• I have also designed an LM324 Proteus Simulation so that you can get better idea of its working.
• I have designed a simple circuit in which LED goes ON or OFF automatically depending on LDR value.
• It's OFF state is shown in below figure:

• You can see in above figure that I have attached LDR at inputs while the LED at its output.
• Variable resistor is used for controlling the sensitivity of LDR sensor.
• It's ON state is shown in below figure:

• You can download this LM324 Proteus Simulation by clicking the below button:

Download Proteus Simulation

So that is all from the tutorial Introduction to LM324. I hope you enjoyed this exciting tutorial. If you face any sort of issues you can ask me in comments anytime you want, without even feeling any kind of hesitation. I will try my level best to solve your issues in a better way, if possible. Our team is also 24/ here to entertain you. I will explore further IC's in my upcoming tutorials and will surely shre them with you as well. So, till then take care :)

Introduction to TL494

Hello everyone I hope you all will be absolutely fine and having fun. Today, I am going to share my knowledge on Introduction to TL494. It supports all of the functions that are necessary for the Pulse Width Modulation (PWM) control circuits. Power supply control is the basic purpose of the TL494 device. It has an output control circuit, a flipflop, dead time comparator, two different error amplifiers, 5V reference voltage, oscillator and a PWM comparator. TL 494 operates properly between the frequency of 1kHz to 300kHz. The Dead Time Comparator (DTC) provides around 5% of dead time. Both of the error amplifiers display a common-mode voltage from -0.3V to (Vcc-2)V. If we provide a sawtooth wave at the CT terminal and terminate RT to the reference output (Vref), the oscillator will be bypassed. The internal circuit of TL 494 resists the double pulse at the output. TL494 has a wide range of applications e.g. microwave ovens, PCs, washing machines, Solar power inverters, solar microinverters, smoke detectors etc. Further detail about this device will be given later in this tutorial.

Introduction to TL494

TL 494 is a chip that deals with all of the functions required for Pulse Width Modulation (PWM) control circuits. It consists of two error amplifiers, oscillator, flipflop, 5V reference voltage, dead time comparator, PWM comparator etc. The range of the operating frequency for this device is from 1kHz to 300kHz. TL 494 can be used in washing machines, microwave ovens, solar power inverters, solar microinverters, smoke detectors etc.

1. TL494 Pinout

• TL494 has 16 pins in total, all of the pins are provided along with their names in the table shown below:
  1. Pin # 1: Non-Inverting Input.
  2. Pin # 2: Inverting Input.
  3. Pin # 3: Feedback.
  4. Pin # 4: Dead Time Control.
  5. Pin # 5: CT.
  6. Pin # 6: RT.
  7. Pin # 7: Ground (GND).
  8. Pin # 8: C1.
  9. Pin # 9: E1.
  10. Pin # 10: E2.
  11. Pin # 11: C2.
  12. Pin # 12: Voltage (Vcc).
  13. Pin # 13: Output Control.
  14. Pin # 14: Reference Voltage.
  15. Pin # 15: Inverting Input.
  16. Pin # 16: Non Inverting Input.

2. TL494 Pin Configuration

• The properly labeled diagram for the TL 494 pins is shown in the figure below.

Modified Sine Wave using TL494

• Here's a circuit where TL494 is used as a standalone IC to generate modified Sine Wave:

TL494 Packages

• There are several different packages of TL 494, a few of which are given below.

TL494 Ratings

• The current and power ratings of TL494 are provided in the table shown below.

TL494 Features

• The features associated with the device TL494 are provided in the table shown below.

TL494 Internal Block Diagram

• The internal block diagram of TL 494 is shown in the figure given below.

TL494 Functional Block Diagram

• The functional block diagram of TL 494 is shown in the figure below.

TL494 Applications

TL 494 has a wide range of applications, a few of which are given below.

• AC/DC Power supply.
• E-Bikes.
• Server PSUs.
• Dual controller.
• Personal Computers.
• Smoke detectors.
• Washing machines.
• Solar power inverter.
• Microwave Ovens.

Note:

• I will upload its Proteus Simulation soon in this tutorial.

So that is all from the tutorial, Introduction to TL494, I hope you all have enjoyed this exciting tutorial. If you face any sort of problems you can ask me in the comments anytime you want without even feeling any kind of hesitation. I will try my level best to solve your issues in a better way, if possible. Our team is also 24/7 here to entertain you. I will explore different hardware and software sections in my upcoming tutorials and will surely share all of them with all of you as well. So, till then, Take Care :)

BC547: Datasheet, Pinout, Working, Applications and Simulation

Hello everyone! I hope you all will be absolutely fine and having fun. Today, I am going to give you a detailed Introduction to BC547. It is an NPN bipolar junction transistor (BJT), mainly used for switching and current amplification.

Its maximum current gain is around 800. So, let's have a detailed overview of BC 547.

Where To Buy?
No.	Components	Distributor	Link To Buy
1	BC547	Amazon	Buy Now

Introduction to BC547

• BC547 is a 3-Terminal NPN Bipolar Junction Transistor(BJT), mostly used for switching purposes and current amplification.
• BC547 Pins(Terminals) from left to right are called:
  • Collector.
  • Base.
  • Emitter.
• Depending on the voltage applied at Base Terminal, BC547 can operate in two states, named:
  • Forward Biased.
  • Reverse Biased.

BC547 as Reverse Biased

• If Base Terminal is connected to the Ground(0V), Collector and Emitter will act as an open switch and the transistor is said to be acting as Reverse Biased.
• In a Reverse Biased State, no current will flow through the transistor.

BC547 as Forward Biased

• If a HIGH signal(normally 5V) is provided at the Base Terminal, Collector and Emitter will start acting as a closed switch and the transistor is said to be acting as Forward Biased.
• In Forward Biased State, the current will start flowing from Collector to Emitter.
• The maximum Collector current limit of BC547 is 110mA, so the load must be lower than that.

• Now let's have a look at the datasheet of BC547:

BC547 Datasheet

• If you want to get in-depth knowledge about any electronic component, then you should read its datasheet.
• You can download BC547 Datasheet by clicking the below button:

Download BC547 Datasheet

• Now, let's have a look at the pinout of BC547:

BC547 Pinout

• BC547 Pinout consists of 3 pins in total, named: Collector(C), Base(B) and Emitter(E).
• All of these three pins along with their symbols are shown in the below table:

BC547 Pins Configuration

• The properly labeled pin configuration diagram of BC 547 along with its animation is shown in the figure given below.

• In the last section, we will design a Proteus Simulation of BC547, which will give you a better understanding of How to use these pins of BC547.

BC547 Transistor Working

• As we know BC547 is an NPN transistor, so in its design, a P-region(Base) is sandwiched between two N-type regions.
• At the border of the P and N, a depletion region is created, which blocks the flow of charge carriers from one region to another.
• When the input voltage is applied at its Base terminal, some amount of current starts to flow from the base to the emitter and controls the current at the collector.
• The voltage between the base and the emitter (VBE), is negative at the emitter and positive at the base terminal for its NPN construction.
• The polarity of voltages applied for each junction is shown in the figure below:

BC547 Ratings

• The current, power and voltage ratings of BC547 along with their values and System International (SI) units are provided in the table shown below.

• Moreover, the storage temperature, as well as operating temperature for the transistor BC 547, is also given in the table shown above.

BC547 Thermal Characteristics

• The thermal characteristics associated with BC 547 are provided along with typical values, in the table shown below.

BC547 Applications

• There are a lot of applications associated with BC547, a few of the major applications are given below.
  • BC547 can be used for switching purposes.
  • We can also use it for amplification purposes.

BC547 Proteus Simulation

• I have made a simple Proteus ISIS simulation using BC 547 for the control of the DC motor.
• The screenshot of the simulation is shown in the figure below.

• The running form of the simulation is shown in the figure below.

• By pressing the button encircled in the figure above, you will be able to observe the working of the DC motor.
• I have made another simulation for DC motor control using Arduino UNO and BC 547.
• The simulation's screenshot is shown in the figure below.

• The source code for the above simulation is given below.

int MotorInput = 2;
int MotorOutput = 7;

void setup() 
{
    pinMode(MotorInput, INPUT_PULLUP);
    pinMode(MotorOutput , OUTPUT);
}

void loop() 
{
    if(digitalRead(MotorInput) == HIGH)
    {
      digitalWrite(MotorOutput, HIGH);
    }
    if(digitalRead(MotorInput) == LOW)
    {
      digitalWrite(MotorOutput, LOW);
    }
  
}

• The running form of the simulation is shown in the figure below.

 

• First of all, you need to change the logic state from 0 to 1, after uploading the hex file, the motor will automatically start to rotate.

That is all from the tutorial Introduction to BC547. I hope you enjoyed this exciting tutorial. If you are facing any sort of problem regarding anything, you can ask me in the comments anytime you want, without even feeling any kind of hesitation. I will try my level best to solve your issues in a better way, if possible. Our entire team is also 24/7 there to entertain you. I will explore further hardware equipment in my upcoming tutorials. So till then, Take Care :)

Introduction to LM741

Hello everyone! I hope you all will be absolutely fine and having fun. Today, I am going to give you an Introduction to LM741. It belongs to the series of general purpose amplifiers. It supports larger range of input voltages. LM741 provides high gain and short circuit protection as well. Its pins configuration is very similar to UA709 and there is no need of frequency compression in LM 741. LM741 can be used as a comparator in order to determine the levels of applied input voltages i.e. either smaller or larger input voltages are applied at its input terminal. LM741 is an op-amp IC having 8 different pins, which will be explained later in this tutorial. LM-741 has a very wide range of applications e.g. function generator, comparator, DC amplifiers, integrator, differentiator, active filters, summing amplifiers, multivibrators.

Introduction to LM741

• LM741 is an operational amplifier having eight (8) pins in total.
• It belongs to the series of general purpose operational amplifiers (op-amp).

• It is capable of providing high gain and can support higher voltages at its input.
• It has a lot of applications in real life i.e. integrator, function generators, multi-vibrators, active filters, amplifiers etc.

1. LM741 Pinout

• LM 741 has eight (8) pins in total.
• All of the pins are provided along with their name and functionalities in the table given below:

LM741 Pinout
Pin No.	Pin Name	Pin Type	Description
1	Offset null	Input	Balance Input Voltage & Eliminate Offset Voltage
2	Inverting Input	Input	Invert Input Voltage
3	Non Inverting Input	Input	Non-Inverting Input Voltage
4	-Vcc	Input	Negative Voltage Supply
5	Offset null	Input	Balance Input Voltage & Eliminate Offset Voltage
6	Output	Output	Amplified Signal Output
7	+Vcc	Input	Positive Voltage Supply
8	Not Connected (NC)	Neither	It's not connected.

• From the above table we can see that the pin 1 and pin 5 has similar function.
• Whereas the pin number 4 and 7 are Vcc pins and output can be obtained from the pin number 6.
• Let's have a detailed overview of its pins in below figure:

• I have labelled all the pins of LM741 in above figure.

2. LM741 Specifications

• The voltage and power ratings of LM 741 are given in table shown below.
• Operating temperature as well as storage temperature are also provided along with their values and SI units.

LM741 Specifications
No.	Parameter	Value	Unit
1	Voltage supply (V)	+- 20	V
2	Power Dissipation (Pd)	500	mW
3	Input Voltage (Iin)	+-15	V
4	Operating Temperature (To)	-50 to +150	C
5	Differential Input Voltage (Vd)	30	V
6	Storage Temperature (Tstg)	-65 to 150	C
7	Junction Temperature (Tj)	150	C

LM741 Symbolic Representation

• LM741 symbolic representation (operational amplifier) is shown in the figure below.
• You can see in below figure that the inverting terminal of op-amp is connected with Pin # 2 while the non-inverting terminal is connected with Pin # 3.
• Now we can take the output from Pin # 6 of LM741.

LM741 Applications

LM 741 has a very wide range of applications in real life, a few of which are given below.

• It can be used as different integrator.
• We can also use it as differential operational amplifiers.
• It can also be used as function generators.
• Sometimes we can use it as comparator to compare voltage levels.
• LM 741 can be used as active filters as well as summing amplifier.
• One of its major application is to use it as offset null circuit, as shown in the figure below.

LM741 Proteus Simulation

• I have made a Proteus ISIS simulation using LM 741.
• The screen shot of the Proteus simulation is shown in the figure below.

• Now let's run this LM 741 Proteus Simulation and if everything goes fine then you will get results as shown in below figure:

• As you can see in the above figure that LM 741 is amplifying the input signal.
• The input signal in above figure is of 50mV and as we change the variable resistance on inverting terminal of op-amp, the amplitude of input signal increases or decreases accordingly.
• You can download this simulation by clicking the below button:

Download Proteus Simulation

So, that is all from the tutorial the Introduction to LM741. I hope you have enjoyed this tutorial. If have any sort of problems, you can ask me in comments anytime you want, without even feeling any kind of hesitation. I will try my level best to solve your issues. Our team is also 24/7 here to entertain you. I will explore other IC's and equipment in my upcoming tutorials. So, till then, take care :)

Introduction to IRF540

Hello everyone! I hope you all will be absolutely fine and having fun. Today, I am going to share my knowledge with all of guys about Introduction to IRF540. It is basically an N-Channel power Metal Oxide Silicon Field Effect Transistor (MOSFET) and operates in enhancement mode. MOSFET is a lot sensitive in comparison to an FET (Field Effect Transistor) due to its very high input impdence. IRF540 can perform very fast switching as compared to the normal transistor. It is based on HEXFET technology and operates on the temperature ranging from -55 degrees celsius  to 175  degree celsius. If we need some switching application between different signals or to perform any of amplification process, MOSFET IRF540 will be the best option in this case because it can perform very fast switching as compared to the similar general transistors. It has a very wide range of applications in real life e.g. high power switching drivers for high speed, switching regulators, relay drivers, switching converters, motor drivers. Note:

• Here's the link to download IRF540 Datasheet and I have also shared the link to buy this MOSFET IRF540:

Download IRF540 Datasheet

Introduction to IRF540

IRF540 is an N-Channel powered MOSFET used for very fast switching operations as well as for amplification processes. It operates in enhancement mode. Its input impedance is quite high as compared to the general transistor so, its a lot sensitive in comparison to them. It has a lot of applications in daily life for example, switching regulators, relay drivers, switching converters, motor drivers, high speed power switching drivers etc. You should also have a look at other MOSFETs and can compare their values with IRF540.

1. IRF540 Pinout

• IRF 540 has three pins in total named as:
  1. Drain
  2. Gate
  3. Source
• So, when we apply signal at the Gate of IRF540, then its Drain and Source got connected.
• All of the IRF540 pins along with their names and symbol are given in the table shown below.

 

IRF540 Pinout
Pin#	Name	Symbol	Type	Function
1	Gate	G	P-Type	Controls the current between Drain & Source
2	Drain	D	N-Type	Electrons Emitter
3	Source	S	N-Type	Electrons Collector

 

2. IRF540 Pin Diagram

• A properly labeled diagram helps in better standing of the user.
• So, I have provided the completely labeled diagram of IRF540 pins configuration.
• The diagram of this MOSFET is shown in the figure below.

3. IRF540 Dimension

• Three dimensions e.g. length width and height of IRF540 module is provided along with their units in the table shown below.

4. IRF540 General Specifications

• The general specifications e.g. configuration, channel type, channel mode, pin numbers, package and category are provided in the table shown below.

5. IRF540 Ratings

• The current, voltage and power ratings of IRF 540 are provided along with their values and System International (SI) units are provided in the table shown below.

6. IRF540 Working Principle

This section of the tutorial will elaborate about the basic working principle on which IRF540 works. IRF540 works on a pretty simple principle. Its has three kinds of terminals e.g. Drain, Gate and Source. When we apply any of the pulse at its Gate terminal, its Gate and Drain gets short i.e. they make a common connection with each other. When the Gate and the Drain gets short, only then we will be able to obtain the desired results otherwise it will produce unnecessary or unwanted results.

7. IRF540 Applications

• The applications associated with IRF540 are given below.
• It can be used as switching converters.
• We can use it as relay drivers.
• It can also be used as high speed switching drivers.
• We can use it as motor drivers.
• It can be used for fast switching and for amplification processes.

8. IRF540 Proteus ISIS Simulation

• I have made a Proteus simulation for DC motor control using IRF540.
• The screenshot of the simulation is provided in the figure shown below.

• The running form of the above simulation is shown in the figure below and you can see in the below figure that as we closed the switch, motor got running.

• When you run the simulation the motor will change its color i.e. blue, as shown in the figure above.
• After running the simulation as you press the button encircled in the above figure, the motor will start to rotate.
• I have another simulation in Proteus ISIS for DC motor control using IRF540 and Arduino UNO.
• The simulation is shown in the figure below.

• If you have a look at the above simulation then you can see, we are sending signal from Arduino to Optocoupler.
• IRF-540 is connected at the output of Opto-coupler.
• Moreover, we have used 1N4148 which is a diode and is used for security reasons and is not allowing the current to flow in opposite direction.
• The source code written in Arduino software is given below.

int MotorInput = 2;
int MotorOutput = 7;

void setup() 
{
    pinMode(MotorInput, INPUT_PULLUP);
    pinMode(MotorOutput , OUTPUT);
}

void loop() 
{
    if(digitalRead(MotorInput) == HIGH)
    {
      digitalWrite(MotorOutput, HIGH);
    }
    if(digitalRead(MotorInput) == LOW)
    {
      digitalWrite(MotorOutput, LOW);
    }
  
}

• You need to just copy and paste the above code in your Arduino software and need to Get the Arduino hex file from it.
• The running form of the above simulation is shown in the figure below.

• You need to run the Proteus simulation after uploading .hex file in Arduino.
• Now if you change the state of the logic state from 0 to 1, the green LED will be turned ON which shows that the circuit is properly working.
• At the same time motor will start rotating in either direction.
• That was the brief discussion about IRF540 Proteus simulation.
• You can download the complete IRF540 Proteus simulation by clicking the below button:

Download IRF540 Datasheet

That is all from the tutorial Introduction to IRF540. I hope you all have enjoyed this exciting tutorial. If you face any kind of problem, you can ask me in comments anytime you want without even feeling any sort of hesitation. Our team is 24/7 here to entertain you and to solve all to solve all of your problem to best of our efforts. I will explore different IC's and transistors in my upcoming tutorials and will surely share all of them with all of you as well. So, till then, take care :)

Introduction to LM317

Hello everyone! I hope you all will be absolutely fine and having fun. Today, I am going to explore my knowledge about Introduction to LM317. It is basically a positive voltage regulator having three terminals. It can a supply a current more than 1.5A and voltage in a range of 1.25V to around 37V. You should also have a look at this LM 317 Calculator. For the adjustment of output voltage only two external resistors are required. It has improved standards of line regulation as well as load regulation. Full overload protection e.g. current limiting, area protection can be achieved using LM317. If its adjusting terminal is disconnected, even then all of the protection circuits will work properly. We can also use LM317 as precision current regulator by inserting a constant resistor between its adjustment terminal and output terminal. LM317 has a wide range of applications e.g. constant regulators, battery chargers, microprocessors supplies, automatic LED lightning, Ethernet switch, femto base station, hydraulic valve, IP phone, motor controllers, power bank solutions, power quality monitoring, Embedded Systems etc.

Introduction to LM317

LM317 is a positive voltage regulator with three different terminals Adjust, Vout and Vin respectively. It can supply the output voltage in a range of 1.25-37V and a current more than 1.5A. It has advanced line regulation and load regulation standards as compared to the general regulators. It has a lot of applications in rela life e.g. motor controllers, power bank solutions, hydraulic valve, ethernet switch, battery chargers etc. Download LM317 Datasheet

1. LM317 Pinout

• LM 317 has three (3) pins in total Adjust, Vout and Vin respectively.
• Each of the pins has its own functions, all the pins along with their name and numbers are shown in table given below.

2. LM317 Pins Configuration

• LM 317 pins configurations along with the properly labeled diagram is shown in the figure below.

• The animated LM317, its symbolic representation and the image of the real LM317 all are shown in the above figure.

3. LM317 Working Principle

LM 317 works on a very simple principle. It is a variable voltage regulator i.e. supports different output voltage levels for a constant applied input voltage supply. A variable resistor is connected at its Adjustment (Adj) terminal in order to control the level of the output voltage according to the requirements of the circuit. In other words we can say that LM 317 can step down the voltage from 12V to several different lower levels.

4. LM317 Packages and Dimensions

• A lot of LM 317 packages and their dimensions are provided along with their System International (SI) units in the table shown below.

• Description of packages along with their dimensions is given in the table above.

5. LM317 Specifications

• The different specifications associated with LM 317 are provided in the table given below.

6. LM317 Applications

LM 317 has a very wide range of application, a few of which are given below.

• Washing machine.
• Waveform generator.
• Refrigerator.
• Programmable Logic Controller (PLC).
• Power quality meter.
• Motor controllers.
• Finger prints.
• Ethernet switch.
• Private branch exchange.
• Constant current regulators.
• Microprocessors supplies.
• Automotive LED lightning.
• Battery chargers, the proper design of the circuit is shown in the figure below.

7. LM317 Proteus Simulation

• I have made a simulation in Proteus ISIS for voltage regulator.
• The screenshot of the simulation is shown in the figure below.

• The running form of the above simulation is shown in the figure below.

• Input, output and variable resistor are encircled in the above figure.
• Since its a variable voltage regulator so by changing the value of variable resistor you can obtained different voltage levels at the output.
• In the above figure, for the resistance of 61% the output voltage is 7.88V.
• Now, I am going to check the voltage level for the different value of variable resistor, which is 54% in this case.
• The output of the simulation is shown in the figure below.

• For the different value of variable resistor the output voltage has also changed from 7.88V to 8.27V.
• That was the detailed description of the voltage regulator simulation.
• You should also have a look at LM 317 Voltage Regulator in Proteus.
• You should also read Introduction to 7805, which is also a voltage regulator and is used to convert 12V into 5V.
• You can download this LM317 Proteus Simulation by clicking below button:

Download LM317 Datasheet

• In the below video, I have shown you how to simulate LM317 in Proteus:

So, that is all from the tutorial Introduction to LM317.  I hope you all have enjoyed this exciting tutorial. If you face any sort of problem you can ask me in comments anytime you want without even feeling any kind of hesitation. I will try my level best to solve your issues in some better way if possible. Our team is here to entertain you 24/7. I will explore further IC's and transistors in my upcoming tutorials and will surely share all of them with all of you as well. So, till then, take care :)

Introduction to 74HC595

Hello everyone! I hope you will be absolutely fine and having fun. Today, I am going to explain all of you about Introduction to 74HC595. It is basically a shift register. It has an ability to store and to shift the data of 8 bits. First of all the data is written on the register serially and then it goes to the storage register. All of the output lines are controlled by this register. 74HC595 register is a very high speed device based on Complementary Metal Oxide Semiconductor (CMOS). 8 bit data register receives the data from the input DS. This data is then transferred from the input shift register to the output shift register. 74HC595 has a vey wide range of applications in daily life. It can be used as serial to parallel data converter, can receive and keeps the data for a long time etc. Moreover, It can be used in home appliances, for the industrial management, as computer peripheral. We will discuss further about this register later in this tutorial.

Introduction to 74HC595

74HC595 is a shift register having and eight bit storage register and an eight bit shift register. The data is written first and then stored into the device. It is high speed CMOS device. The data is usually entered in a serial format. Storage register is used to control the output lines of 74HC595. It has different real life applications e.g. in home appliances, computer peripherals, serial to parallel converter etc.

1. 74HC595 Pinout

• It has 16 pins in total out which eight are on left side and the remaining on the right side of the structure.
• The different function is associated with each of the pin.
• Some of the pins acts as an input to this device and receives data serially and transfer to the output pins to observe the received data.
• The pin diagram for 74HC595 is shown in the figure below:

• DS pin acts and receives the serial data.
• All of the lines with prefix Q acts as the output lines.

2. 74HC595 Pin Configuration

• In this section if the tutorial Introduction to 74HC595, I will tell you about the functions associated with each of the individual pin of 74HC595.
• All of the associated functions are describes in the table given below.

3. Functioning Diagarm

• The proper functional diagram of the shift register 74HC595 is shown in the figure below.

• From the above figure you can see that SHCP, master reset (MR) and the input DS are connected to 8 stage shift register.
• Pin number 12 i.e. STCP is connected to 8 bit storage register.
• The output enable (OE) is connected to 3 state outputs.

4. 74HC595 Functional Description

•  In this section of the tutorial Introduction to 74HC595, I will tell you about the functions of each line of the 8 bit shift register 74HC595.
• Complete description of the functions of 74HC595 is given in the table shown below.

5. 74HC595 Timing Diagram

• The arrow in the upward direction shows the rising edge of the each wave either received or applied.
• The shape of the signals applied and received and their relation with each other is shown in the figure below.

5. 74HC595 Logic Diagram

• The logic diagram for 74HC595 8 bit shift register is shown in the figure below.

• You can see that there are 8 different stages from 0 to 7 and latches are there in the logic diagram of 74HC595.
• Output enable (OE) and master reset (MR) are connected to latches with an inverted sign usually known as bubble.

6. 74HC595 Current/Voltage Rating

• The current, power and voltage rating along with their values and system international units are shown in the table given below.
• The values of operating temperature and storage temperature are also shown in the figure below.

7. 74HC595 Proteus Simulation

• I have a Proteus simulation for continuous control of the different LED's using 74HC595.
• The screenshot of the simulation is shown in the figure below.

• The complete Arduino source code is shown below.
• You need to just upload .hex file of this code into the Arduino of Proteus and run the simulation.

int RCLK = 5;
int SER = 6;
int SRCLK = 7;

#define TotalIC 1
#define TotalICPins TotalIC * 8

boolean Data[TotalICPins];

void setup()
{
  pinMode(SER, OUTPUT);
  pinMode(RCLK, OUTPUT);
  pinMode(SRCLK, OUTPUT);

  ClearBuffer();
}              


void loop()
{
   for(int i = TotalICPins - 1; i >=  0; i--)
   {
      Data[i] = HIGH;
      UpdateData();
      delay(300);
      ClearBuffer();
   }

   for(int i = 1;i < TotalICPins - 1;  i++)
   {
      Data[i] = HIGH;
      UpdateData();
      delay(300);
      ClearBuffer();
   }
   
}

• The running form of the above simulation is shown in the GIF below.

• You can download the complete simulation as well as the complete Arduino source code, here by clicking on the button below.

Proteus Simulation & Arduino Code

• Just download .rar file, extract it and enjoy the complete package having both Arduino source code as well as Proteus simulation.

So that is all from the tutorial Introduction to 74HC595. I hope you really enjoyed this tutorial. If you face any sort of problem regarding any thing, you can ask me anytime in comments without even feeling any kind of hesitation. I will try my level to entertain you and to solve your issues in a better way, if possible. Our entire team is 24/7 here to entertain you and to solve your issues in a way or the other. I will explore different IC's in my later tutorials and will surely share all them with all of as you as well. So, till then, Take Care :)

Introduction to 2N3904

Hello everyone! I hope you will be absolutely fine and having fun. Today, I am going to give an Introduction to 2N3904. It is basically an NPN transistor made up of silicon material. It acts as a general purpose amplifier and switch. You should also have a look at Introduction to 2N2222, which is also an NPN transistor and considered as 2N3904 equivalent. It is mostly used for lower power amplifiers and switching applications. Its major functional area is enclosed in TO-92 package. Its a silicon NPN general purpose bipolar junction (BJT) transistor designed for switching purpose as well as for an amplifier. Its can bear lower amount of current, lower power and medium voltage levels. It is most commonly used BJT due to its smaller size, wide availability and low cost. It is less sensitive to fluctuations in voltages and currents as compared to other BJT's.

Where To Buy?
No.	Components	Distributor	Link To Buy
1	2N3904	Amazon	Buy Now

Introduction to 2N3904

• 2N3904 is a silicon NPN Bipolar Junction Transistor (BJT), enclosed in TO-92 package and is normally used for switching & amplification purposes.
• 2N3904 Pinout consists of 3 Pins i.e. Base, Emitter & Collector.
• As it's an NPN transistor, so major charge carriers are electrons caryying negative charge.
• Small voltage at base(around 0.7V) changes its state from reverse to forward biased and starts conducting.
• It has a wide range of applications i.e. used in televisions, home appliances, medium-load switches, PWM applications etc.

Now let's have a look at 2n3904 Pinout:

2N3904 Pinout

• 2N3904 Pinout has three pins in total:
  1. Emitter denoted by E
  2. Base denoted by B.
  3. Collector denoted by C.
• 2N3904 Pin Diagram is shown in below figure:

• 2N3904 Pinouts alongwith their symbols are shown in the table given below.

Let's have a look at the Datasheet of 2N3904:

2N3904 Datasheet

• In order to get in-depth knowledge on any component, must read its datasheet. Here's the link to download 2n3904 Datasheet:

Introduction to 2N3904 Let's have a look at the equivalents of 2N3904 NPN Transistor:

2N3904 Equivalent

Although common transistors such as 2N3904 are easily available in local/online electronics stores, but its wise to know the alternatives. So, 2N3904 equivalents are as follows:

• BC636
• 2N3055
• 2N2222
• BC549
• BC639
• 2SC5200
• 2N2369
• 2N3906

Now let's have a look at poewr ratings of 2N3904:

2N3904 Ratings

• Transistors are available in different ranges of power ratings and their selection depends on circuit's requirements.
• So, a circuit designer's task is to select an optimized transistor for its circuit, which should fullfill all its power equirements & must be cost efficient.
• If current/voltage passing through a transistor exceeds its ratings, the transistor may burnt out.
• Below table shows 2N3904 Ratings:

2N3904 Ratings
No.	Parameter Name	Parameter Value
1	C-E Voltage (VCEO)	40V (DC)
2	C-B Voltage (VCBO)	60V (DC)
3	E-B Voltage (VEBO)	6V  (DC)
4	Collector Current (IC)	200mA

Now, let's have a look at few applications of 2N3904:

2N3904 Applications

2N3904 is one of the most commonly used NPN transistor because of its low-cost, high-speed and small-size. Few of 2N3904 applications are as follows:

• It's normally used as a simple switch to control heavy loads, because of its low saturation voltage and high gain.
• It's used in home appliances i.e. TV, LCDs, stereo systems etc.
• It's also used in fast switching applications i.e. pulse width modulation(pwm), because of its fast switching speed.
• 2N3904 is also in signal amplification projects(i.e. sound amplifiers) as it has high current gain & thus can be used as an amplifier.

2N3904 Transistor as a switch

• In normal state, 2N3904 acts as reverse biased and there's no conduction between Collector & Emitter.
• When small voltage applies at its Base Terminal(normally 5V), 2N3904 converts its state from reverse to forward biased and conventional current starts flowing from Collector to Emitter.

Now, let's design a simulation to practically understand, how 2N3904 transistor acts as a switch?

2N3904 Proteus Simulation

• Let's first control a simple LED on/off state using 2N3904 NPN transistor
• As shown in below figure, power is supplied at Collector and LED is connected at the Emitter with resistor(to limit current) & grounded from the other end.

• As there's no voltage applied at Base Terminal, so 2N3904 is reverse biased and thus LED is OFF.
• Now when we have applied 5V at Base Terminal(using LogicState in Proteus), 2N3904 gets forward biased and now LED is ON, as shown in below figure:

• So, that's how we can use 2N3904 transistor as a switch.

In above simulation, we have controlled a simple LED and have used a manual switch. Now, I am going to control a DC motor with Arduino.

2N3904 Arduino Interfacing in Proteus

• I have made another simulation in Proteus ISIS for DC motor control using 2N3904.
• The screenshot of the simulation is shown in the figure below.

• The complete Arduino source code of the above simulation is given below.
• You have to get the hex file in Arduino to observe the results properly.

int MotorInput = 2;
int MotorOutput = 7;

void setup() 
{
    pinMode(MotorInput, INPUT_PULLUP);
    pinMode(MotorOutput , OUTPUT);
}

void loop() 
{
    if(digitalRead(MotorInput) == HIGH)
    {
      digitalWrite(MotorOutput, HIGH);
    }
    if(digitalRead(MotorInput) == LOW)
    {
      digitalWrite(MotorOutput, LOW);
    }
  
}

• The running form of the above simulation is shown in the below figure:

• From the above figure you can see that after uploading .hex file and running the simulation you need to change the level of logic state from 0 to 1, and the motor will start to rotate.
• You can download the complete Proteus ISIS simulation as well as complete Arduino source code, here by clicking on the button below.
• Just download .rar file, extract it and enjoy the complete package.

Introduction to 2N3904

• You should watch this below video to understand how to run this Proteus Simulation:

So that is all from the tutorial Introduction to 2N3904. I hope you really enjoyed this tutorial. If you face any sort of problem regarding any thing, you can ask me anytime in comments without even feeling any kind of hesitation. I will try my level to entertain you and to solve your issues in a better way, if possible. Our entire team is 24/7 here to entertain you and to solve your issues in a way or the other. I will explore different IC's in my later tutorials and will surely share all them with all of as you as well. So, till then, Take Care :)

Introduction to 1N4148

Hello everyone! I hope you will be absolutely fine and having fun. Today, I am going to give an Introduction to 1N4148. It is basically a diode used for fast switching purposes. Switching diodes are usually single P-N diodes and their functionality is similar to that of normal switch. Below a specific voltage, switching diodes i.e. 1N4148 has high resistance. Whereas as above that specific voltage they show a low resistance. It is a most commonly used diode due to its smaller size, easy availability and low cost. Good switching diode can be chosen by its maximum reverse recovery time and its power dissipation ranging from 80mW to 1kW. Switching diodes such as 1N4148, 1N4007 etc. have very wide range of applications specially in Embedded Systems for switching purposes. It is mostly used in switches having extremely fast operation. It can be used for high speed rectification, general purpose switching and fast switching are also included in its applications, protection of telecommunication industries and homes etc.

Introduction to 1N4148

1N4148 is a standard diode made up of silicon and is used for extremely fast switching operations. It has two modes of operation named as:

1. Forward Biased
2. Reverse Baised

In Forward Biased operational mode, it allows the current to pass though it and it acts as a closed switch, while in Reverse Biased operational mode it acts as an open switch and doesn't allow the current to pass through it. I have explained it in below figure: I have designed the above simulation in Proteus and you can see in the above image.

• In forward biased state, diode IN4148 is acting as a closed switch and allowing the current to pass through it, that's why our LED is ON.
• In Reversed Biased state, diode IN4148 is acting as an open switch and there's no current flowing through it, that's why our LED is OFF.
• In the below figure, I have shown the equivalent circuit of both of these diode states:

1. 1N4148 Mechanical Design Parameters

• The different parameters for mechanical design of this diode are shown in the table given below.

• These are few of the parameters for mechanical designing of the zener diode 1N4148.
• Some of the other mechanical parameters are also shown in the table given below.

• The parameters given in the table above can be verified from the figure shown below,

• From the figure shown above, we can see that the diode has four major sides which are A, B, C and D respectively.
• Each of the side has its own different dimension as given in the table shown above.
• So, that was the brief discussion about the mechanical design parameters for this diode.

2. 1N4148 Pinout

• 1N4148 has only a single input terminal and a single output terminal.
• Input terminal is known as anode and output terminal is known as cathode.
• Anode is indicated by the positive (?ve) charge whereas the cathode is indicated by negative (?ve) charge.
• Pins and their charges are shown in the table given below.

3. 1N4148 Pins Diagram

• Pins diagram for this diode is shown in the figure below,

• This is the properly labeled diagram of 1N4148 showing anode on one side as A and cathode on the other side as B.

4. 1N4148 Power Ratings

• The current, voltage and power rating for the diode 1N4148 are provided in the table shown below.

• The table above displays the ratings of the particular diode along with their symbols and values.

5. 1N4148 Applications

The switching diode i.e. 1N4148 has a wide range of applications, a few pf which are given below:

• Extremely fat switching purposes.
• High speed rectification.
• General purpose switching.
• Protection circuits in telecommunication industries, offices, homes etc.
• These were few of the applications associated with this switching diode.

So that is all from the tutorial Introduction to 1N4148. I hope you really enjoyed this tutorial. If you face any sort of problem regarding any thing, you can ask me anytime in comments without even feeling any kind of hesitation. I will try my level to entertain you and to solve your issues in a better way, if possible. Our entire team is 24/7 here to entertain you and to solve your issues in a way or the other. I will explore different IC's in my later tutorials and will surely share all them with all of as you as well. So, till then, Take Care :)

Introduction to 2N2222

Hello everyone! I hope you will be absolutely fine and having fun. Today, I am going to give you an Introduction to 2N2222. It is the most commonly used Negative-Positive-Negative (NPN) Bipolar Junction Transistor (BJT) available in the market now a days. 2N2222 can be used for different purposes e.g. switching and amplification of analog signals. I hope you have enjoyed the previous post on Introduction to ULN2003. The major functional area of 2N2222 is enclosed in TO-18 package. Due to the low cost and small size it is the most commonly used transistor. One of its key features is its ability to handle the high values of currents as compared to the other similar small transistors. Normally it is capable of switching a load current of 800mA which is really high rating as compared to other similar transistors. It is either made up of silicon or germanium material and doped with either positively or negatively charged material. Its applications may include amplification of analog signals as well as switching applications. While performing amplification applications, it receives an analog signal via collectors and another signal is applied at its base. Analog signal could be the voice signal having the analog frequency of almost 4kHz (human voice).

Introduction to 2N2222

2N2222 is the most common NPN bipolar junction transistor available in the market. It can be used for amplification of analog signals as well as switching applications. The major functional area of 2N-2222 is enclosed in TO-18 package. It is most common in the market due to the cost efficiency and the smaller size.

• It is shown in the figure shown below.

1. 2N2222 Pinout

• 2N 2222 has 3 pins in total, which are:
  1. Pin # 1: Emitter.
  2. Pin # 2: Base.
  3. Pin # 3: Collector.
• 2N2222 Pinout is shown in the figure below:

2. 2N2222 Pin Description

• The functions associated with each pin of 2N2222 along with the pin names are shown in the table given below.

• That was the description of the pins of the transistor.
• Pin configuration is shown in the figure below.

 

3. 2N2222 Voltage/Current Ratings

• The current, power and voltage ratings for 2N 2222 transistor are shown in the table given below.

• From the above table you can see the voltage across collector base junction is almost double as compared to the voltage across collector emitter junction.
• emitter base voltage is 12 times lesser than the voltage across the collector emitter junction.
• It can drive high amount of current loads as compared to the other similar transistors i.e. 800mA.
• This IC should be operated between the temperature ranging from -65 to 200 degree celcius.
• That was the brief description of the power, current and voltage ratings of the IC 2N2222.

4. 2N2222 Characteristics

The key characteristics associated with 2N2222 are given below.

• The total power of this component should not exceed by 500mW.
• The maximum capacity of handling frequency is 250MHz.
• For the collector current of 10mA and for 10 volts the DC current is around 75.
• Maximum tolerance of 2N2222 is 60V across its base and collector.
• Some of the other characteristics are shown in the table given below.

• That was the brief description about the key characteristics of the transistor 2N2222.

5. 2N2222 Simulation in Proteus

• I have also made a two different simple simulation in Proteus ISIS using the transistor 2N2222.
• The Proteus ISIS simulation for controlling an LED using 2N2222 is shown in the figure given below.

• If you change the state of the logic state from 0 to 1, current will be supplied to the collector and hence an LED attached to its emitter will be turned on.
• The running form of the above simulation is shown in the figure below.

• I have made another simulation in Proteus ISIS to control a simple DC motor using Arduino UNO.
• The simulation of the task is shown in the figure below.

• Source code for the above simulation is given below.

int MotorInput = 2;
int MotorOutput = 7;

void setup()
{
  pinMode(MotorInput, INPUT_PULLUP);
  pinMode(MotorOutput , OUTPUT);
}

void loop()
{
  if (digitalRead(MotorInput) == HIGH)
  {
    digitalWrite(MotorOutput, HIGH);
  }
  if (digitalRead(MotorInput) == LOW)
  {
    digitalWrite(MotorOutput, LOW);
  }

}

• You have to just copy and paste the entire code into the Arduino software.
• Obtain its .hex file and insert it into the Arduino of the Proteus ISIS.
• The running form of the above simulation is shown in the figure below:

• You can download the complete Arduino source code and simulation in one package, here by clicking on the button shown below.

Proteus Simulation & Arduino Code

So that is all from the tutorial Introduction to 2N2222. I hope you enjoyed this tutorial. If you face any sort of problem regarding any thing, you can ask me anytime in comments without even feeling any kind of hesitation. I will try my level to entertain you and to solve your issues in a better way, if possible. Our entire team is 24/7 here to entertain you and to solve your issues in a way or the other. I will explore different IC's in my later tutorials and will surely share all them with all of as you as well. So, till then, Take Care :)