The Engineering Projects

Introduction to LM741

Hello everyone! I hope you all will be absolutely fine and having fun. Today, I am going to give you an Introduction to LM741. It belongs to the series of general purpose amplifiers. It supports larger range of input voltages. LM741 provides high gain and short circuit protection as well. Its pins configuration is very similar to UA709 and there is no need of frequency compression in LM 741. LM741 can be used as a comparator in order to determine the levels of applied input voltages i.e. either smaller or larger input voltages are applied at its input terminal. LM741 is an op-amp IC having 8 different pins, which will be explained later in this tutorial. LM-741 has a very wide range of applications e.g. function generator, comparator, DC amplifiers, integrator, differentiator, active filters, summing amplifiers, multivibrators.

Introduction to LM741

• LM741 is an operational amplifier having eight (8) pins in total.
• It belongs to the series of general purpose operational amplifiers (op-amp).

• It is capable of providing high gain and can support higher voltages at its input.
• It has a lot of applications in real life i.e. integrator, function generators, multi-vibrators, active filters, amplifiers etc.

1. LM741 Pinout

• LM 741 has eight (8) pins in total.
• All of the pins are provided along with their name and functionalities in the table given below:

LM741 Pinout
Pin No.	Pin Name	Pin Type	Description
1	Offset null	Input	Balance Input Voltage & Eliminate Offset Voltage
2	Inverting Input	Input	Invert Input Voltage
3	Non Inverting Input	Input	Non-Inverting Input Voltage
4	-Vcc	Input	Negative Voltage Supply
5	Offset null	Input	Balance Input Voltage & Eliminate Offset Voltage
6	Output	Output	Amplified Signal Output
7	+Vcc	Input	Positive Voltage Supply
8	Not Connected (NC)	Neither	It's not connected.

• From the above table we can see that the pin 1 and pin 5 has similar function.
• Whereas the pin number 4 and 7 are Vcc pins and output can be obtained from the pin number 6.
• Let's have a detailed overview of its pins in below figure:

• I have labelled all the pins of LM741 in above figure.

2. LM741 Specifications

• The voltage and power ratings of LM 741 are given in table shown below.
• Operating temperature as well as storage temperature are also provided along with their values and SI units.

LM741 Specifications
No.	Parameter	Value	Unit
1	Voltage supply (V)	+- 20	V
2	Power Dissipation (Pd)	500	mW
3	Input Voltage (Iin)	+-15	V
4	Operating Temperature (To)	-50 to +150	C
5	Differential Input Voltage (Vd)	30	V
6	Storage Temperature (Tstg)	-65 to 150	C
7	Junction Temperature (Tj)	150	C

LM741 Symbolic Representation

• LM741 symbolic representation (operational amplifier) is shown in the figure below.
• You can see in below figure that the inverting terminal of op-amp is connected with Pin # 2 while the non-inverting terminal is connected with Pin # 3.
• Now we can take the output from Pin # 6 of LM741.

LM741 Applications

LM 741 has a very wide range of applications in real life, a few of which are given below.

• It can be used as different integrator.
• We can also use it as differential operational amplifiers.
• It can also be used as function generators.
• Sometimes we can use it as comparator to compare voltage levels.
• LM 741 can be used as active filters as well as summing amplifier.
• One of its major application is to use it as offset null circuit, as shown in the figure below.

LM741 Proteus Simulation

• I have made a Proteus ISIS simulation using LM 741.
• The screen shot of the Proteus simulation is shown in the figure below.

• Now let's run this LM 741 Proteus Simulation and if everything goes fine then you will get results as shown in below figure:

• As you can see in the above figure that LM 741 is amplifying the input signal.
• The input signal in above figure is of 50mV and as we change the variable resistance on inverting terminal of op-amp, the amplitude of input signal increases or decreases accordingly.
• You can download this simulation by clicking the below button:

Download Proteus Simulation

So, that is all from the tutorial the Introduction to LM741. I hope you have enjoyed this tutorial. If have any sort of problems, you can ask me in comments anytime you want, without even feeling any kind of hesitation. I will try my level best to solve your issues. Our team is also 24/7 here to entertain you. I will explore other IC's and equipment in my upcoming tutorials. So, till then, take care :)

Introduction to IRF540

Hello everyone! I hope you all will be absolutely fine and having fun. Today, I am going to share my knowledge with all of guys about Introduction to IRF540. It is basically an N-Channel power Metal Oxide Silicon Field Effect Transistor (MOSFET) and operates in enhancement mode. MOSFET is a lot sensitive in comparison to an FET (Field Effect Transistor) due to its very high input impdence. IRF540 can perform very fast switching as compared to the normal transistor. It is based on HEXFET technology and operates on the temperature ranging from -55 degrees celsius  to 175  degree celsius. If we need some switching application between different signals or to perform any of amplification process, MOSFET IRF540 will be the best option in this case because it can perform very fast switching as compared to the similar general transistors. It has a very wide range of applications in real life e.g. high power switching drivers for high speed, switching regulators, relay drivers, switching converters, motor drivers. Note:

• Here's the link to download IRF540 Datasheet and I have also shared the link to buy this MOSFET IRF540:

Download IRF540 Datasheet

Introduction to IRF540

IRF540 is an N-Channel powered MOSFET used for very fast switching operations as well as for amplification processes. It operates in enhancement mode. Its input impedance is quite high as compared to the general transistor so, its a lot sensitive in comparison to them. It has a lot of applications in daily life for example, switching regulators, relay drivers, switching converters, motor drivers, high speed power switching drivers etc. You should also have a look at other MOSFETs and can compare their values with IRF540.

1. IRF540 Pinout

• IRF 540 has three pins in total named as:
  1. Drain
  2. Gate
  3. Source
• So, when we apply signal at the Gate of IRF540, then its Drain and Source got connected.
• All of the IRF540 pins along with their names and symbol are given in the table shown below.

 

IRF540 Pinout
Pin#	Name	Symbol	Type	Function
1	Gate	G	P-Type	Controls the current between Drain & Source
2	Drain	D	N-Type	Electrons Emitter
3	Source	S	N-Type	Electrons Collector

 

2. IRF540 Pin Diagram

• A properly labeled diagram helps in better standing of the user.
• So, I have provided the completely labeled diagram of IRF540 pins configuration.
• The diagram of this MOSFET is shown in the figure below.

3. IRF540 Dimension

• Three dimensions e.g. length width and height of IRF540 module is provided along with their units in the table shown below.

4. IRF540 General Specifications

• The general specifications e.g. configuration, channel type, channel mode, pin numbers, package and category are provided in the table shown below.

5. IRF540 Ratings

• The current, voltage and power ratings of IRF 540 are provided along with their values and System International (SI) units are provided in the table shown below.

6. IRF540 Working Principle

This section of the tutorial will elaborate about the basic working principle on which IRF540 works. IRF540 works on a pretty simple principle. Its has three kinds of terminals e.g. Drain, Gate and Source. When we apply any of the pulse at its Gate terminal, its Gate and Drain gets short i.e. they make a common connection with each other. When the Gate and the Drain gets short, only then we will be able to obtain the desired results otherwise it will produce unnecessary or unwanted results.

7. IRF540 Applications

• The applications associated with IRF540 are given below.
• It can be used as switching converters.
• We can use it as relay drivers.
• It can also be used as high speed switching drivers.
• We can use it as motor drivers.
• It can be used for fast switching and for amplification processes.

8. IRF540 Proteus ISIS Simulation

• I have made a Proteus simulation for DC motor control using IRF540.
• The screenshot of the simulation is provided in the figure shown below.

• The running form of the above simulation is shown in the figure below and you can see in the below figure that as we closed the switch, motor got running.

• When you run the simulation the motor will change its color i.e. blue, as shown in the figure above.
• After running the simulation as you press the button encircled in the above figure, the motor will start to rotate.
• I have another simulation in Proteus ISIS for DC motor control using IRF540 and Arduino UNO.
• The simulation is shown in the figure below.

• If you have a look at the above simulation then you can see, we are sending signal from Arduino to Optocoupler.
• IRF-540 is connected at the output of Opto-coupler.
• Moreover, we have used 1N4148 which is a diode and is used for security reasons and is not allowing the current to flow in opposite direction.
• The source code written in Arduino software is given below.

int MotorInput = 2;
int MotorOutput = 7;

void setup() 
{
    pinMode(MotorInput, INPUT_PULLUP);
    pinMode(MotorOutput , OUTPUT);
}

void loop() 
{
    if(digitalRead(MotorInput) == HIGH)
    {
      digitalWrite(MotorOutput, HIGH);
    }
    if(digitalRead(MotorInput) == LOW)
    {
      digitalWrite(MotorOutput, LOW);
    }
  
}

• You need to just copy and paste the above code in your Arduino software and need to Get the Arduino hex file from it.
• The running form of the above simulation is shown in the figure below.

• You need to run the Proteus simulation after uploading .hex file in Arduino.
• Now if you change the state of the logic state from 0 to 1, the green LED will be turned ON which shows that the circuit is properly working.
• At the same time motor will start rotating in either direction.
• That was the brief discussion about IRF540 Proteus simulation.
• You can download the complete IRF540 Proteus simulation by clicking the below button:

Download IRF540 Datasheet

That is all from the tutorial Introduction to IRF540. I hope you all have enjoyed this exciting tutorial. If you face any kind of problem, you can ask me in comments anytime you want without even feeling any sort of hesitation. Our team is 24/7 here to entertain you and to solve all to solve all of your problem to best of our efforts. I will explore different IC's and transistors in my upcoming tutorials and will surely share all of them with all of you as well. So, till then, take care :)

Introduction to LM317

Hello everyone! I hope you all will be absolutely fine and having fun. Today, I am going to explore my knowledge about Introduction to LM317. It is basically a positive voltage regulator having three terminals. It can a supply a current more than 1.5A and voltage in a range of 1.25V to around 37V. You should also have a look at this LM 317 Calculator. For the adjustment of output voltage only two external resistors are required. It has improved standards of line regulation as well as load regulation. Full overload protection e.g. current limiting, area protection can be achieved using LM317. If its adjusting terminal is disconnected, even then all of the protection circuits will work properly. We can also use LM317 as precision current regulator by inserting a constant resistor between its adjustment terminal and output terminal. LM317 has a wide range of applications e.g. constant regulators, battery chargers, microprocessors supplies, automatic LED lightning, Ethernet switch, femto base station, hydraulic valve, IP phone, motor controllers, power bank solutions, power quality monitoring, Embedded Systems etc.

Introduction to LM317

LM317 is a positive voltage regulator with three different terminals Adjust, Vout and Vin respectively. It can supply the output voltage in a range of 1.25-37V and a current more than 1.5A. It has advanced line regulation and load regulation standards as compared to the general regulators. It has a lot of applications in rela life e.g. motor controllers, power bank solutions, hydraulic valve, ethernet switch, battery chargers etc. Download LM317 Datasheet

1. LM317 Pinout

• LM 317 has three (3) pins in total Adjust, Vout and Vin respectively.
• Each of the pins has its own functions, all the pins along with their name and numbers are shown in table given below.

2. LM317 Pins Configuration

• LM 317 pins configurations along with the properly labeled diagram is shown in the figure below.

• The animated LM317, its symbolic representation and the image of the real LM317 all are shown in the above figure.

3. LM317 Working Principle

LM 317 works on a very simple principle. It is a variable voltage regulator i.e. supports different output voltage levels for a constant applied input voltage supply. A variable resistor is connected at its Adjustment (Adj) terminal in order to control the level of the output voltage according to the requirements of the circuit. In other words we can say that LM 317 can step down the voltage from 12V to several different lower levels.

4. LM317 Packages and Dimensions

• A lot of LM 317 packages and their dimensions are provided along with their System International (SI) units in the table shown below.

• Description of packages along with their dimensions is given in the table above.

5. LM317 Specifications

• The different specifications associated with LM 317 are provided in the table given below.

6. LM317 Applications

LM 317 has a very wide range of application, a few of which are given below.

• Washing machine.
• Waveform generator.
• Refrigerator.
• Programmable Logic Controller (PLC).
• Power quality meter.
• Motor controllers.
• Finger prints.
• Ethernet switch.
• Private branch exchange.
• Constant current regulators.
• Microprocessors supplies.
• Automotive LED lightning.
• Battery chargers, the proper design of the circuit is shown in the figure below.

7. LM317 Proteus Simulation

• I have made a simulation in Proteus ISIS for voltage regulator.
• The screenshot of the simulation is shown in the figure below.

• The running form of the above simulation is shown in the figure below.

• Input, output and variable resistor are encircled in the above figure.
• Since its a variable voltage regulator so by changing the value of variable resistor you can obtained different voltage levels at the output.
• In the above figure, for the resistance of 61% the output voltage is 7.88V.
• Now, I am going to check the voltage level for the different value of variable resistor, which is 54% in this case.
• The output of the simulation is shown in the figure below.

• For the different value of variable resistor the output voltage has also changed from 7.88V to 8.27V.
• That was the detailed description of the voltage regulator simulation.
• You should also have a look at LM 317 Voltage Regulator in Proteus.
• You should also read Introduction to 7805, which is also a voltage regulator and is used to convert 12V into 5V.
• You can download this LM317 Proteus Simulation by clicking below button:

Download LM317 Datasheet

• In the below video, I have shown you how to simulate LM317 in Proteus:

So, that is all from the tutorial Introduction to LM317.  I hope you all have enjoyed this exciting tutorial. If you face any sort of problem you can ask me in comments anytime you want without even feeling any kind of hesitation. I will try my level best to solve your issues in some better way if possible. Our team is here to entertain you 24/7. I will explore further IC's and transistors in my upcoming tutorials and will surely share all of them with all of you as well. So, till then, take care :)

Introduction to 74HC595

Hello everyone! I hope you will be absolutely fine and having fun. Today, I am going to explain all of you about Introduction to 74HC595. It is basically a shift register. It has an ability to store and to shift the data of 8 bits. First of all the data is written on the register serially and then it goes to the storage register. All of the output lines are controlled by this register. 74HC595 register is a very high speed device based on Complementary Metal Oxide Semiconductor (CMOS). 8 bit data register receives the data from the input DS. This data is then transferred from the input shift register to the output shift register. 74HC595 has a vey wide range of applications in daily life. It can be used as serial to parallel data converter, can receive and keeps the data for a long time etc. Moreover, It can be used in home appliances, for the industrial management, as computer peripheral. We will discuss further about this register later in this tutorial.

Introduction to 74HC595

74HC595 is a shift register having and eight bit storage register and an eight bit shift register. The data is written first and then stored into the device. It is high speed CMOS device. The data is usually entered in a serial format. Storage register is used to control the output lines of 74HC595. It has different real life applications e.g. in home appliances, computer peripherals, serial to parallel converter etc.

1. 74HC595 Pinout

• It has 16 pins in total out which eight are on left side and the remaining on the right side of the structure.
• The different function is associated with each of the pin.
• Some of the pins acts as an input to this device and receives data serially and transfer to the output pins to observe the received data.
• The pin diagram for 74HC595 is shown in the figure below:

• DS pin acts and receives the serial data.
• All of the lines with prefix Q acts as the output lines.

2. 74HC595 Pin Configuration

• In this section if the tutorial Introduction to 74HC595, I will tell you about the functions associated with each of the individual pin of 74HC595.
• All of the associated functions are describes in the table given below.

3. Functioning Diagarm

• The proper functional diagram of the shift register 74HC595 is shown in the figure below.

• From the above figure you can see that SHCP, master reset (MR) and the input DS are connected to 8 stage shift register.
• Pin number 12 i.e. STCP is connected to 8 bit storage register.
• The output enable (OE) is connected to 3 state outputs.

4. 74HC595 Functional Description

•  In this section of the tutorial Introduction to 74HC595, I will tell you about the functions of each line of the 8 bit shift register 74HC595.
• Complete description of the functions of 74HC595 is given in the table shown below.

5. 74HC595 Timing Diagram

• The arrow in the upward direction shows the rising edge of the each wave either received or applied.
• The shape of the signals applied and received and their relation with each other is shown in the figure below.

5. 74HC595 Logic Diagram

• The logic diagram for 74HC595 8 bit shift register is shown in the figure below.

• You can see that there are 8 different stages from 0 to 7 and latches are there in the logic diagram of 74HC595.
• Output enable (OE) and master reset (MR) are connected to latches with an inverted sign usually known as bubble.

6. 74HC595 Current/Voltage Rating

• The current, power and voltage rating along with their values and system international units are shown in the table given below.
• The values of operating temperature and storage temperature are also shown in the figure below.

7. 74HC595 Proteus Simulation

• I have a Proteus simulation for continuous control of the different LED's using 74HC595.
• The screenshot of the simulation is shown in the figure below.

• The complete Arduino source code is shown below.
• You need to just upload .hex file of this code into the Arduino of Proteus and run the simulation.

int RCLK = 5;
int SER = 6;
int SRCLK = 7;

#define TotalIC 1
#define TotalICPins TotalIC * 8

boolean Data[TotalICPins];

void setup()
{
  pinMode(SER, OUTPUT);
  pinMode(RCLK, OUTPUT);
  pinMode(SRCLK, OUTPUT);

  ClearBuffer();
}              


void loop()
{
   for(int i = TotalICPins - 1; i >=  0; i--)
   {
      Data[i] = HIGH;
      UpdateData();
      delay(300);
      ClearBuffer();
   }

   for(int i = 1;i < TotalICPins - 1;  i++)
   {
      Data[i] = HIGH;
      UpdateData();
      delay(300);
      ClearBuffer();
   }
   
}

• The running form of the above simulation is shown in the GIF below.

• You can download the complete simulation as well as the complete Arduino source code, here by clicking on the button below.

Proteus Simulation & Arduino Code

• Just download .rar file, extract it and enjoy the complete package having both Arduino source code as well as Proteus simulation.

So that is all from the tutorial Introduction to 74HC595. I hope you really enjoyed this tutorial. If you face any sort of problem regarding any thing, you can ask me anytime in comments without even feeling any kind of hesitation. I will try my level to entertain you and to solve your issues in a better way, if possible. Our entire team is 24/7 here to entertain you and to solve your issues in a way or the other. I will explore different IC's in my later tutorials and will surely share all them with all of as you as well. So, till then, Take Care :)

Introduction to 2N3904

Hello everyone! I hope you will be absolutely fine and having fun. Today, I am going to give an Introduction to 2N3904. It is basically an NPN transistor made up of silicon material. It acts as a general purpose amplifier and switch. You should also have a look at Introduction to 2N2222, which is also an NPN transistor and considered as 2N3904 equivalent. It is mostly used for lower power amplifiers and switching applications. Its major functional area is enclosed in TO-92 package. Its a silicon NPN general purpose bipolar junction (BJT) transistor designed for switching purpose as well as for an amplifier. Its can bear lower amount of current, lower power and medium voltage levels. It is most commonly used BJT due to its smaller size, wide availability and low cost. It is less sensitive to fluctuations in voltages and currents as compared to other BJT's.

Where To Buy?
No.	Components	Distributor	Link To Buy
1	2N3904	Amazon	Buy Now

Introduction to 2N3904

• 2N3904 is a silicon NPN Bipolar Junction Transistor (BJT), enclosed in TO-92 package and is normally used for switching & amplification purposes.
• 2N3904 Pinout consists of 3 Pins i.e. Base, Emitter & Collector.
• As it's an NPN transistor, so major charge carriers are electrons caryying negative charge.
• Small voltage at base(around 0.7V) changes its state from reverse to forward biased and starts conducting.
• It has a wide range of applications i.e. used in televisions, home appliances, medium-load switches, PWM applications etc.

Now let's have a look at 2n3904 Pinout:

2N3904 Pinout

• 2N3904 Pinout has three pins in total:
  1. Emitter denoted by E
  2. Base denoted by B.
  3. Collector denoted by C.
• 2N3904 Pin Diagram is shown in below figure:

• 2N3904 Pinouts alongwith their symbols are shown in the table given below.

Let's have a look at the Datasheet of 2N3904:

2N3904 Datasheet

• In order to get in-depth knowledge on any component, must read its datasheet. Here's the link to download 2n3904 Datasheet:

Introduction to 2N3904 Let's have a look at the equivalents of 2N3904 NPN Transistor:

2N3904 Equivalent

Although common transistors such as 2N3904 are easily available in local/online electronics stores, but its wise to know the alternatives. So, 2N3904 equivalents are as follows:

• BC636
• 2N3055
• 2N2222
• BC549
• BC639
• 2SC5200
• 2N2369
• 2N3906

Now let's have a look at poewr ratings of 2N3904:

2N3904 Ratings

• Transistors are available in different ranges of power ratings and their selection depends on circuit's requirements.
• So, a circuit designer's task is to select an optimized transistor for its circuit, which should fullfill all its power equirements & must be cost efficient.
• If current/voltage passing through a transistor exceeds its ratings, the transistor may burnt out.
• Below table shows 2N3904 Ratings:

2N3904 Ratings
No.	Parameter Name	Parameter Value
1	C-E Voltage (VCEO)	40V (DC)
2	C-B Voltage (VCBO)	60V (DC)
3	E-B Voltage (VEBO)	6V  (DC)
4	Collector Current (IC)	200mA

Now, let's have a look at few applications of 2N3904:

2N3904 Applications

2N3904 is one of the most commonly used NPN transistor because of its low-cost, high-speed and small-size. Few of 2N3904 applications are as follows:

• It's normally used as a simple switch to control heavy loads, because of its low saturation voltage and high gain.
• It's used in home appliances i.e. TV, LCDs, stereo systems etc.
• It's also used in fast switching applications i.e. pulse width modulation(pwm), because of its fast switching speed.
• 2N3904 is also in signal amplification projects(i.e. sound amplifiers) as it has high current gain & thus can be used as an amplifier.

2N3904 Transistor as a switch

• In normal state, 2N3904 acts as reverse biased and there's no conduction between Collector & Emitter.
• When small voltage applies at its Base Terminal(normally 5V), 2N3904 converts its state from reverse to forward biased and conventional current starts flowing from Collector to Emitter.

Now, let's design a simulation to practically understand, how 2N3904 transistor acts as a switch?

2N3904 Proteus Simulation

• Let's first control a simple LED on/off state using 2N3904 NPN transistor
• As shown in below figure, power is supplied at Collector and LED is connected at the Emitter with resistor(to limit current) & grounded from the other end.

• As there's no voltage applied at Base Terminal, so 2N3904 is reverse biased and thus LED is OFF.
• Now when we have applied 5V at Base Terminal(using LogicState in Proteus), 2N3904 gets forward biased and now LED is ON, as shown in below figure:

• So, that's how we can use 2N3904 transistor as a switch.

In above simulation, we have controlled a simple LED and have used a manual switch. Now, I am going to control a DC motor with Arduino.

2N3904 Arduino Interfacing in Proteus

• I have made another simulation in Proteus ISIS for DC motor control using 2N3904.
• The screenshot of the simulation is shown in the figure below.

• The complete Arduino source code of the above simulation is given below.
• You have to get the hex file in Arduino to observe the results properly.

int MotorInput = 2;
int MotorOutput = 7;

void setup() 
{
    pinMode(MotorInput, INPUT_PULLUP);
    pinMode(MotorOutput , OUTPUT);
}

void loop() 
{
    if(digitalRead(MotorInput) == HIGH)
    {
      digitalWrite(MotorOutput, HIGH);
    }
    if(digitalRead(MotorInput) == LOW)
    {
      digitalWrite(MotorOutput, LOW);
    }
  
}

• The running form of the above simulation is shown in the below figure:

• From the above figure you can see that after uploading .hex file and running the simulation you need to change the level of logic state from 0 to 1, and the motor will start to rotate.
• You can download the complete Proteus ISIS simulation as well as complete Arduino source code, here by clicking on the button below.
• Just download .rar file, extract it and enjoy the complete package.

Introduction to 2N3904

• You should watch this below video to understand how to run this Proteus Simulation:

So that is all from the tutorial Introduction to 2N3904. I hope you really enjoyed this tutorial. If you face any sort of problem regarding any thing, you can ask me anytime in comments without even feeling any kind of hesitation. I will try my level to entertain you and to solve your issues in a better way, if possible. Our entire team is 24/7 here to entertain you and to solve your issues in a way or the other. I will explore different IC's in my later tutorials and will surely share all them with all of as you as well. So, till then, Take Care :)

Introduction to 1N4148

Hello everyone! I hope you will be absolutely fine and having fun. Today, I am going to give an Introduction to 1N4148. It is basically a diode used for fast switching purposes. Switching diodes are usually single P-N diodes and their functionality is similar to that of normal switch. Below a specific voltage, switching diodes i.e. 1N4148 has high resistance. Whereas as above that specific voltage they show a low resistance. It is a most commonly used diode due to its smaller size, easy availability and low cost. Good switching diode can be chosen by its maximum reverse recovery time and its power dissipation ranging from 80mW to 1kW. Switching diodes such as 1N4148, 1N4007 etc. have very wide range of applications specially in Embedded Systems for switching purposes. It is mostly used in switches having extremely fast operation. It can be used for high speed rectification, general purpose switching and fast switching are also included in its applications, protection of telecommunication industries and homes etc.

Introduction to 1N4148

1N4148 is a standard diode made up of silicon and is used for extremely fast switching operations. It has two modes of operation named as:

1. Forward Biased
2. Reverse Baised

In Forward Biased operational mode, it allows the current to pass though it and it acts as a closed switch, while in Reverse Biased operational mode it acts as an open switch and doesn't allow the current to pass through it. I have explained it in below figure: I have designed the above simulation in Proteus and you can see in the above image.

• In forward biased state, diode IN4148 is acting as a closed switch and allowing the current to pass through it, that's why our LED is ON.
• In Reversed Biased state, diode IN4148 is acting as an open switch and there's no current flowing through it, that's why our LED is OFF.
• In the below figure, I have shown the equivalent circuit of both of these diode states:

1. 1N4148 Mechanical Design Parameters

• The different parameters for mechanical design of this diode are shown in the table given below.

• These are few of the parameters for mechanical designing of the zener diode 1N4148.
• Some of the other mechanical parameters are also shown in the table given below.

• The parameters given in the table above can be verified from the figure shown below,

• From the figure shown above, we can see that the diode has four major sides which are A, B, C and D respectively.
• Each of the side has its own different dimension as given in the table shown above.
• So, that was the brief discussion about the mechanical design parameters for this diode.

2. 1N4148 Pinout

• 1N4148 has only a single input terminal and a single output terminal.
• Input terminal is known as anode and output terminal is known as cathode.
• Anode is indicated by the positive (?ve) charge whereas the cathode is indicated by negative (?ve) charge.
• Pins and their charges are shown in the table given below.

3. 1N4148 Pins Diagram

• Pins diagram for this diode is shown in the figure below,

• This is the properly labeled diagram of 1N4148 showing anode on one side as A and cathode on the other side as B.

4. 1N4148 Power Ratings

• The current, voltage and power rating for the diode 1N4148 are provided in the table shown below.

• The table above displays the ratings of the particular diode along with their symbols and values.

5. 1N4148 Applications

The switching diode i.e. 1N4148 has a wide range of applications, a few pf which are given below:

• Extremely fat switching purposes.
• High speed rectification.
• General purpose switching.
• Protection circuits in telecommunication industries, offices, homes etc.
• These were few of the applications associated with this switching diode.

So that is all from the tutorial Introduction to 1N4148. I hope you really enjoyed this tutorial. If you face any sort of problem regarding any thing, you can ask me anytime in comments without even feeling any kind of hesitation. I will try my level to entertain you and to solve your issues in a better way, if possible. Our entire team is 24/7 here to entertain you and to solve your issues in a way or the other. I will explore different IC's in my later tutorials and will surely share all them with all of as you as well. So, till then, Take Care :)

Introduction to 2N2222

Hello everyone! I hope you will be absolutely fine and having fun. Today, I am going to give you an Introduction to 2N2222. It is the most commonly used Negative-Positive-Negative (NPN) Bipolar Junction Transistor (BJT) available in the market now a days. 2N2222 can be used for different purposes e.g. switching and amplification of analog signals. I hope you have enjoyed the previous post on Introduction to ULN2003. The major functional area of 2N2222 is enclosed in TO-18 package. Due to the low cost and small size it is the most commonly used transistor. One of its key features is its ability to handle the high values of currents as compared to the other similar small transistors. Normally it is capable of switching a load current of 800mA which is really high rating as compared to other similar transistors. It is either made up of silicon or germanium material and doped with either positively or negatively charged material. Its applications may include amplification of analog signals as well as switching applications. While performing amplification applications, it receives an analog signal via collectors and another signal is applied at its base. Analog signal could be the voice signal having the analog frequency of almost 4kHz (human voice).

Introduction to 2N2222

2N2222 is the most common NPN bipolar junction transistor available in the market. It can be used for amplification of analog signals as well as switching applications. The major functional area of 2N-2222 is enclosed in TO-18 package. It is most common in the market due to the cost efficiency and the smaller size.

• It is shown in the figure shown below.

1. 2N2222 Pinout

• 2N 2222 has 3 pins in total, which are:
  1. Pin # 1: Emitter.
  2. Pin # 2: Base.
  3. Pin # 3: Collector.
• 2N2222 Pinout is shown in the figure below:

2. 2N2222 Pin Description

• The functions associated with each pin of 2N2222 along with the pin names are shown in the table given below.

• That was the description of the pins of the transistor.
• Pin configuration is shown in the figure below.

 

3. 2N2222 Voltage/Current Ratings

• The current, power and voltage ratings for 2N 2222 transistor are shown in the table given below.

• From the above table you can see the voltage across collector base junction is almost double as compared to the voltage across collector emitter junction.
• emitter base voltage is 12 times lesser than the voltage across the collector emitter junction.
• It can drive high amount of current loads as compared to the other similar transistors i.e. 800mA.
• This IC should be operated between the temperature ranging from -65 to 200 degree celcius.
• That was the brief description of the power, current and voltage ratings of the IC 2N2222.

4. 2N2222 Characteristics

The key characteristics associated with 2N2222 are given below.

• The total power of this component should not exceed by 500mW.
• The maximum capacity of handling frequency is 250MHz.
• For the collector current of 10mA and for 10 volts the DC current is around 75.
• Maximum tolerance of 2N2222 is 60V across its base and collector.
• Some of the other characteristics are shown in the table given below.

• That was the brief description about the key characteristics of the transistor 2N2222.

5. 2N2222 Simulation in Proteus

• I have also made a two different simple simulation in Proteus ISIS using the transistor 2N2222.
• The Proteus ISIS simulation for controlling an LED using 2N2222 is shown in the figure given below.

• If you change the state of the logic state from 0 to 1, current will be supplied to the collector and hence an LED attached to its emitter will be turned on.
• The running form of the above simulation is shown in the figure below.

• I have made another simulation in Proteus ISIS to control a simple DC motor using Arduino UNO.
• The simulation of the task is shown in the figure below.

• Source code for the above simulation is given below.

int MotorInput = 2;
int MotorOutput = 7;

void setup()
{
  pinMode(MotorInput, INPUT_PULLUP);
  pinMode(MotorOutput , OUTPUT);
}

void loop()
{
  if (digitalRead(MotorInput) == HIGH)
  {
    digitalWrite(MotorOutput, HIGH);
  }
  if (digitalRead(MotorInput) == LOW)
  {
    digitalWrite(MotorOutput, LOW);
  }

}

• You have to just copy and paste the entire code into the Arduino software.
• Obtain its .hex file and insert it into the Arduino of the Proteus ISIS.
• The running form of the above simulation is shown in the figure below:

• You can download the complete Arduino source code and simulation in one package, here by clicking on the button shown below.

Proteus Simulation & Arduino Code

So that is all from the tutorial Introduction to 2N2222. I hope you enjoyed this tutorial. If you face any sort of problem regarding any thing, you can ask me anytime in comments without even feeling any kind of hesitation. I will try my level to entertain you and to solve your issues in a better way, if possible. Our entire team is 24/7 here to entertain you and to solve your issues in a way or the other. I will explore different IC's in my later tutorials and will surely share all them with all of as you as well. So, till then, Take Care :)

Introduction to ULN2003

Hello everyone! I hope you will be absolutely fine and having fun. Today, I am going to give you a detailed Introduction to ULN2003. We will also discuss the ULN2003 Datasheet, Pinout, Circuit Diagram & Proteus Simulation. If you have ever controlled any motor (i.e. DC Motor, Stepper Motor etc.) with a microcontroller (i.e. PIC, Arduino etc.), then you must have heard about drivers. Why do we need to use drivers? We use drivers (to control motors) because of two reasons.

• First: Microcontrollers operate at 5V while motors operate at different voltages (5V, 12V, 24V etc.).
• Second: Motors are Inductive loads thus they produce back emf, which may damage your microcontroller permanently (if not handled correctly).

Because of these two reasons, we have to use the driver in between the microcontroller & motor. There are different types of motor drivers available and ULN2003 is one of them. If we check its datasheet, then we can see that ULN2003 can handle up to 50V & 500mA. As its current rating is not that high, so it's used to control small motors. For heavy motors, we normally use relays in between ULN2003 & motor. In this case, the Microcontroller is sending a signal to ULN2003, which then forwards it to relays (connected at output). Remember, the relay is also an inductive load. So, we can control different types of loads with ULN2003 i.e. motor, relay, solenoid, actuator etc. You should also have a look at Relay Interfacing with Microcontroller using ULN2003A.

Now, let's have a look at what's inside ULN2003 in detail:

Where To Buy?
No.	Components	Distributor	Link To Buy
1	ULN2003	Amazon	Buy Now

ULN2003: Definition

• ULN2003 is a 16 Pin IC, consisting of 7 Darlington pairs (each pair protected with suppression diode) and thus has the capability to handle a maximum of 7 loads(could be inductive).
• In simple words, we have 7 drivers in a single ULN2003 chip and thus can control a maximum of 7 loads.
• Each Darlington pair can handle a maximum 500mA load, while the peak value is 600mA.
• Similarly, the maximum output voltage of each Darlington pair is 50V.
• In the below figure, you can see ULN2003 has 16 Pins, where inputs and their respective outputs are placed in front of each other(for ease of circuit designing).
• Other than I/O Pins, we have Ground Pin where we need to provide 0V & Vcc (Common) Pin.

ULN2003 Datasheet

• Here's the link to download ULN2003 datasheet, must read it once.
• I have also given the link to a reliable source, from where you can buy ULN2003 IC.

Download ULN2003 Datasheet

ULN2003 Pinout

• ULN2003 has 16 pins in total:
  • 7 Input pins (Pin # 1 to Pin # 7)
  • 7 Output pins (Pin # 10 to Pin # 16)
  • 1 Ground pin (Pin # 8)
  • 1 COM pin (Pin # 9)
• ULN2003 Pinout is shown in the below figure:

ULN2003 Pin Description

• The functions associated with each pin of ULN2003 along with pin names are shown in the table given below.

ULN2003 Darlington Pair

• ULN2003 consists of 7 identical Darlington pairs.
• A single Darlington pair consists of two bipolar transistors its maximum operating values are 50V & 500mA (peak 600mA).
• These two transistors of the Darlington pair have a common emitter, while their collectors are open.
• Here's the circuit diagram of a single Darlington pair, shown in the below figure:

ULN2003A Free-Wheeling Diodes

• ULN2003A has free-wheeling diodes, which protect from back emf.
• So, if we are using an inductive load (i.e. relays), then we don't need to add extra diodes if we are controlling it with ULN2003A.
• Logic Diagram of ULN2003A is shown in the below figure:

ULN2003 Features

There are a lot of key features associated with the relay driver ULN2003. A few of them are given below:

• 500mA of the rated collector.
• The high output voltage of around 50V.
• Relay driver applications.
• Output clamp diodes.
• Compatible input with popular logic types.
• Some of the key features are also given in the table below for a better understanding of the working conditions of ULN2003.

ULN2003 Applications

The relay circuit driver ULN2003 has a wide range of applications in real life. Some of the major applications associated with ULN2003A are given below.

• Logic buffers.
• Line drivers.
• Relay drivers (for driving different loads).
• Lamp drivers.
• LED display drivers (display devices).
• Motor (stepper and DC brushed motor) drivers.

ULN2003 Proteus Simulation

• I have designed a simulation in Proteus ISIS for LED control using ULN2003.
• The screenshot of the simulation is shown in the figure below.

• As you can see in the above figure that I have connected Logic State at all inputs of ULN2003A and have connected Leds at outputs.
• So, now when I make the Logic State HIGH then the respective LED will also go ON.
• The running form of the above simulation is shown in the figure below.

• If you change the state of the logic state from 0 to 1, the corresponding LED will be turned ON as shown in the above figure.
• You can download the Proteus simulation here by clicking on the button below.
• Just download the .rar file, extract it and enjoy the simulation.

ULN2003 Simulation in Proteus

• Here's the video in which I have shown how to use ULN2003A in Proteus:

So that is all from the tutorial Introduction to ULN2003. I hope you enjoyed this tutorial. If you face any sort of problem regarding anything, you can ask me anytime in the comments without even feeling any kind of hesitation. I will try my level to entertain you and to solve your issues in a better way, if possible. Our entire team is 24/7 here to entertain you and to solve your issues in one way or the other. I will explore different ICs in my later tutorials and will surely share them with all of you as well. So, till then, Take Care :)

Servo Motor Control using Arduino

Hello everyone! I hope you all will be absolutely fine and having fun. Today, I am going to tell you about how to design an algorithm for Servo Motor Control using Arduino. First of all I would like to tell you a bit about the servo motors. Servo motors are small devices having an output shaft. We can adjust this shaft in different angular positions by continuously sending the servo coded signal. Servo motor maintains the angular position of the shaft as long as the coded signal is present at the input. If the applied coded signal changes, angular position of the shaft of a servo motor also changes correspondingly. If you are working on Servo Motor then i would suggest you to must have look at this tutorial Servo Motor control in Proteus, as its always a best practice to design simulation first. In my previous tutorials I have controlled the direction and speed of the both DC as well as of the stepper motor. Ordinary DC motor has only two input terminals. When power is supplied it simply starts to rotate continuously. In comparison to the DC motor servo motor has three wires. Using servo coded signal we can send commands to the servo motor that in what direction and with what angle it has to rotate. If we want to add motion in our electrical projects, servo motor will be an easy way to do so. Servo motor has a wide range of applications in our daily life e.g elevator, cars, robotics, puppets, remote controlled airplanes and cars, conveyor belts, solar tracking system, antenna positioning, textiles etc.Moreover, I have also controlled the Servo Motor with PIC Microcontroller, so if you are using PIC Microcontroller then have a look at that one.

Servo Motor Control using Arduino

In the tutorial Servo Motor Control using Arduino, I will tell you step by step procedure for connecting the servo motor with Arduino and how to design a algorithm in Arduino software to control its angular position with the help of servo coded signal. First of all I would like to tell you about the hardware components necessary for Servo Motor Control using Arduino.

• You can download the complete Arduino source code here by clicking on the button below.

• Just download .rar file, extract it and enjoy the complete source code.

Hardware Required

A complete list of the hardware equipment necessary for this task is given below.

• Computer/Laptop
• Arduino UNO (Micro Controller)
• Appropriate USB Cable
• Servo Motor (4.8 to 6.0V with 2.5 kgf-cm torque)
• Jumper Wires (Cables)

Arduino UNO acts as the backbone of this task. It sends the servo encoded signal to the servo motor to control its angular movement. Arduino UNO board is shown in the figure below. Servo Motor having torque of 2.5kgf-cm and 4.8-6.0v is used for this project. The selected servo motor is shown in the figure below. Power of 5V is supplied to the servo motor from the Arduino UNO board. Jumper Wires are used to make the connections of the all the components in order to make the complete circuit with proper working. Jumper wires are shown in the figure below.

Circuit Diagram

• The circuit diagram for Servo Motor Control using Arduino is shown in the figure below.

• I have supplied 5V to red wire of the servo motor as shown in the above figure.
• The black wire is the attached to the GND pin of the Arduino UNO.
• Yellow wire is basically the wire used to control the angular motion as well as the angle of the servo motor.

Source Code Description

• The complete Arduino source code for Servo Motor Control using Arduino is given below.
• You have to just copy the code given below and to past it in your Arduino software.
• By uploading the source code to your Arduino board you will be able to control the servo motor using Arduino.

#include <Servo.h> //library for servo motor

Servo myservo;  // servo motor object for its control

int ang = 0;    // a variable to store the servo angle

void setup() {

  Serial.begin(9600);
  
  myservo.attach(8);  // servo motor is attached to pin no 8 og Arduino

}

void loop() {

  for (ang = 0; ang <= 180; ang += 5) // goes from 0 degrees to 180 degrees with a step og 5 degree
  { 
    myservo.write(ang);              // rotates the servo to rotate at specific angle
    delay(50);     // adding delay of 50 msec
    Serial.println("Motor has started its rotation from 0 to 180 degress");
      }
  for (ang = 180; ang >= 0; ang -= 5) // goes from 180 degrees to 0 degrees with a step of 5 degree
  { 
    myservo.write(ang);              // rotates the servo to rotate at specific angle
    delay(50);                      // adding delay of 50 msec
    Serial.println("Motor has started its rotation from 180 to 0 degress");
      }
}

• First of all I have inserted the library for servo motor.
• Then I have created a servo object and declared the initial angle of the servo motor.
• After that I have have adjust the baud rate, the rate at which Arduino communicates with the laptop/computer.
• Then I have defined the pin at which the servo motor is attached to the Arduino UNO's board.
• Inside the main loop, I have applied the condition that in between 0 and 180 degrees, the servo motor's angle will be increased with different steps and each step has 5 degrees of angular movement.
• When maximum limit is reached, the angle will be reduced from 180 to 0 degree with different steps, each step having 5 degrees of angular movement.
• That was the brief description of the Arduino complete source code designed for Servo Motor Control using Arduino.

That is all from the tutorial Servo Motor Control using Arduino. I hope you all have enjoyed this tutorial. If you face any sort of problem you can ask me freely in comments any time you want without even feeling any kind of hesitation. I will try my level best to solve your issues in a better way, if possible. I will explore Arduino by making different projects on it and will share all of them with all of you as well in my later tutorials. Till then, Take care :)

DC Current Sensor ACS712 Arduino Interfacing

Hello everyone! I hope you all will be absolutely fine and having fun. Today, I am going to share my knowledge with all of you guys about DC Current Sensor ACS712 Arduino Interfacing. First of all, I would like to tell you about importance of current sensing/measuring. Sensing the amount of current passing through any circuit can be useful in a lot of applications. For example, in low power consuming equipment, current sensing will be helpful to understand the system's impact on its battery life. The current sensing can also be used to make the decisions regarding safety in over current protection circuits. Simply, we can say that sensing and controlling the flow of the current through the circuits is now a fundamental requirement e.g. over current protection circuits, battery chargers, watt meters, power supplies etc.

DC Current Sensor ACS712 Arduino Interfacing

Basically, there are two types of current senors AC and DC. But, in the tutorial,I am going to do the DC Current Sensor ACS712 Arduino Interfacing, and we will learn about the sensing of the DC current. I will use ACS712 DC current sensor for sensing the DC current.

• You can download the complete Arduino source code there.
• Download .rar file, extract it and upload code in your Arduino board:

Components Required

Here I am going to tell you about the components necessary for this projects. The list of all the components is given below.

• Arduino UNO
• DC Current Sensor (ACS712)
• DC Load
• Wero Board
• Soldering Iron
• Soldering Gum
• Jumper wires
• Power Supply (12V)
• 20 x 4 LCD

Description of the Components used

[ultimate_spacer height"10"] In this section of the tutorial Interfacing DC Current Sensor with Arduino, I will explain the reasons why I have used the specific components for this project.

• Arduino UNO acts as the back bone of the project. It manipulates the whole source code uploaded to the board, prints the desired data on the serial monitor and also prints the executed commands on the LCD. You can use the same code of other Arduino boards as well i.e. Arduino Nano, Arduino Pro Mini etc.

• Power Supply of 12V is used to turn the entire system ON. Because, we can not test and verify our system until we have not switched it ON. Power supply used for this project is shown in the figure. I have used this 9A Battery (I have this available) but you can use 1.5A small battery as well. Battery selection depends on your projects' power consumption.

• LCD is used to display the digital values of the data which has been printed on the serial monitor of the Arduino software i.e all the executed commands will be printed on the LCD as well. The LCD which I have used for this is shown in the figure.

• Jumper Wires are used to make the connections of the all the components, in order to make the complete circuit with proper working. Jumper wires are shown in the figure. There are 3 types of Jumper wires available: Male to Male, Male to Female & Female to Female.

• ACS712 is used to sense the Direct Current (DC) flowing through the any circuit. The DC current sensor used is shown in the figure.

Flow Chart

[ultimate_spacer height="5"]

• Here, I would like to explain the entire algorithm with the help of a flow chart for DC Current Sensor ACS712 Arduino Interfacing.
• The flow chart for this project DC Current Sensor ACS712 Arduino Interfacing is shown in the figure.
• First of all, I have initialized the Serial Port.
• After that we are reading the value from our current sensor ACS712.
• Then data will be displayed on the LCD and Serial Monitor.

Circuit Diagram

• The complete wiring diagram for this project is shown in the figure below.

• You can run this project properly, by making the circuit first, identical to the circuit diagram shown in the figure above.
• The digital pin 0 of the Arduino UNO will help us in reading the data from the sensor.
• The other two pins of the sensor are connected to the supply of 5V and ground respectively as you can see from the above figure.

Source Code Description

• The source code for this project DC Current Sensor ACS712 Arduino Interfacing is given below.
• You have to just copy and paste the code given below in your Arduino software after properly interfacing DHT11 with the Arduino.
• After uploading the code onto your Arduino board you will be able to observe the humidity and temperature and humidity level on serial monitor.

// include the library code:
#include <LiquidCrystal.h> //library for LCD

// initialize the library with the numbers of the interface pins
LiquidCrystal lcd(8, 9, 10, 11, 12, 13);

//Measuring Current Using ACS712

const int analogIn = 0; //Connect current sensor with A0 of Arduino
int mVperAmp = 185; // use 100 for 20A Module and 66 for 30A Module
int RawValue= 0;
int ACSoffset = 2500; 
double Voltage = 0; //voltage measuring
double Amps = 0;// Current measuring

void setup() {
  //baud rate
  Serial.begin(9600);//baud rate at which arduino communicates with Laptop/PC
  // set up the LCD's number of columns and rows:
  lcd.begin(20, 4);  //LCD order
  // Print a message to the LCD.
  lcd.setCursor(1,1);//Setting cursor on LCD
  lcd.print("www.TheEngineering");//Prints on the LCD
  lcd.setCursor(4,2);
  lcd.print("Projects.com");
  delay(3000);//time delay for 3 sec
  lcd.clear();//clearing the LCD display
  lcd.display();//Turning on the display again
  lcd.setCursor(1,0);//setting LCD cursor
  lcd.print("Reading Values from");//prints on LCD
  lcd.setCursor(1,1);
  lcd.print("DC Current Sensor");
  lcd.setCursor(5,2);
  lcd.print("ACS 712");
  delay(2000);//delay for 2 sec
}

void loop() //method to run the source code repeatedly
{
 
 RawValue = analogRead(analogIn);//reading the value from the analog pin
 Voltage = (RawValue / 1024.0) * 5000; // Gets you mV
 Amps = ((Voltage - ACSoffset) / mVperAmp);
 
//Prints on the serial port
 Serial.print("Raw Value = " ); // prints on the serial monitor
 Serial.print(RawValue); //prints the results on the serial monitor
 
 lcd.clear();//clears the display of LCD
 delay(1000);//delay of 1 sec
 lcd.display();
 lcd.setCursor(1,0);
 lcd.print("Raw Value = ");
 lcd.setCursor(13,0);
 lcd.print(RawValue);
 
 Serial.print("\t mV = "); // shows the voltage measured 
 Serial.print(Voltage,3); // the '3' after voltage allows you to display 3 digits after decimal point
 
 lcd.setCursor(1,1);
 lcd.print("Voltage = ");
 lcd.setCursor(11,1);
 lcd.print(Voltage,3);
 lcd.setCursor(17,1);
 lcd.print("mV");//Unit for the voltages to be measured
 
 Serial.print("\t Amps = "); // shows the voltage measured 
 Serial.println(Amps,3);// the '3' after voltage allows you to display 3 digits after decimal point
 
 lcd.setCursor(1,2);
 lcd.print("Current = ");
 lcd.setCursor(11,2);
 lcd.print(Amps,3);
 lcd.setCursor(16,2);
 lcd.print("A"); //unit for the current to be measured
 delay(2500); delay of 2.5 sec
}

• I am going to explain you that how this code is working!
• Then I have defined the library for LCD.
• I have defined the pin at which DC current sensor is attached with the Arduino board.
• Then I have defined the Arduino pins at which the LCD is interfaced.
• Then by opening the serial port I have started to print the level of temperature and humidity on the serial monitor as well as on the 20×4 LCD.
• At the end, I have added the delay of few seconds so that the speed of the data to be printed on the serial monitor can be reduced to some extent in order to observe properly.
• This was the brief description of the source code.

This is all from the tutorial DC Current Sensor ACS712 Arduino Interfacing. I hope you all enjoyed this tutorial. If you face any sort of problem you can ask me anytime in comments without even feeling any kind of hesitation. I will try my level best to solve your issues in a better way, if possible. I will explore Arduino further in my later tutorials. Till then, Take care :)