The Engineering Projects

Introduction to PC817

Hello everyone! I hope you all will be absolutely fine and having fun. Today, I am going to give you a detailed Introduction to PC817. PC-817 is also known as an optocoupler / optoisolator. It consists of Infrared Emitting Diode (IRED). This IRED is coupled to a photo transistor optically and not electrically. It is closed in a four (4) pin package. This package is usually available in two different forms. The first one is wide lead (Pb) spacing option and the second one is SMT gullwing lead form option. PC 817 has an internal LED and a photo transistor. The photo transistor's base becomes activate when LED throws light on it. The output obtained can be divided into two formats either common emitter or common collector. But the configuration is mostly common emitter. If the LED does not glow, transistor remains off and hence there will b no output generated by the optocoupler i.e. PC-817. PC 817 has different feature e.g. double transfer mold package, current transfer ratio, different CTR ranks available, RoHS comliant, lead (Pb) free etc. Its real life application includes noise suppression in switching circuits, programmable controllers, signal transmission between circuits having different voltages, signal transmission between different impedance etc.  The further detail about PC817 will be given later in this tutorial.

Introduction to PC817

• PC817 is a 4 Pin optocoupler, consists of an Infrared Emitting Diode (IRED) & photo transistor, which enables it optically connected but electrically insulated.
• Inrared Emitting Diode is connected to first two Pins and if we apply power to it, then IR waves are emitted from this diode, which makes the photo transistor forward biased.
• If there's no power on the input side, diode will stop emitting IR waves and thus photo transistor will reverse biased.
• PC817 is normally used in embedded project for isolation purposes.
• In my embedded projects, I place PC817 after Microcontroller Pins to isolate back EMF, in case of motor control etc.
•  PC-817 has several applications e.g. noise suppression in switching circuits, input/output isolation for MCU (Micro Controller Unit). PC 817 is shown in the figure given below.
• You can download PC817 Datasheet by clicking below button:

Download PC817 Datasheet  

PC817 Features
No.	Parameter	Value
1	Pin Count	4
2	Manufacturer	Sharp
3	IRED	1
4	Forward Current	50mA
5	Peak Forward Current	1A
6	Reverse Voltage	6V
7	Power Dissipation	70mW
8	Collector Emitter Voltage	80V
9	Emitter Collector Voltage	6V
10	Collector Current	50mW
11	Collector Power Dissipation	150mW
12	Total Power Dissipation	200mW

 

1. PC817 Pinout

• PC817 Pinout consists of four (4) pins in total, first two are connected with the Infrared Emitting Diode (IRED) while the last two are connected with Photo Transistor.
• All of these four pins are given in the table shown below, along with their name & status.

 

PC817 Pinout
Pin No.	Pin Name	Status
Pin # 1	Anode	Input
Pin # 2	Cathode	Input
Pin # 3	Emitter	Output
Pin # 4	Collector	Output

 

• PC817 Pinout diagram is shown in the figure below:

2. PC817 Packages

• Different packages of the same device presents its models with some modifications or extra features.
• PC 817 has four packages, displayed in below table:

 

PC817 Packages
No.	Package Type	Example
1	Through-Hole	PC817X
2	SMT Gullwing Lead-Form	PC817XI
3	Wide Through-Hole Lead-Form	PC817XF
4	Wide SMT Gullwing Lead-Form	PC817XFP

 

3. PC817 Symbolic Representation

• Symbolic diagram presents internal structure and functionality of any device.
• PC 817 symbolic representation is given in the figure shown below:

4. PC817 Features

• The features of anything shows its ability to do something different and unique as compared to the others.
• All of the amazing features associated in the PC-817 are shown in the table given below.

5. PC817 Ratings

• Ratings of an equipment shows shows basically the operating conditions of that particular device,and they may vary from device to device.
• The power, current and voltage ratings of PC 817 are given in the table shown below.

7. PC817 Applications

• Any electronic device is usually known on the basics of its real life applications.
• Real life applications are highly related to the popularity of a device.
• some of the major real life applications of PC-817 are provided in the table shown below.

That was the detailed discussion on Introduction to PC817. This tutorial consists of all the important detail and information that a user must need to know before operating PC 817. If you have any problem regarding anything, you can ask us. We will help you to the best of our efforts. You can contact our team anytime you want to. I will share other amazing informative articles later. So, till then take care :)

Introduction to MAX232

Hello everyone! I hope you all will be fine and having fun. Today, I am going to give you a detailed Introduction to MAX232. It is an Integrated Circuit(IC) embedded in a single chip and acts as a voltage-level converter. MAX 232 is capable of converting 5V TTL Logic level to TIA/EIA-232-F level and can take up to +-30V input. It is normally used for the communication between microcontroller and Laptop/PC.

We can use MAX-232 to convert Transistor Transistor Logic (TTL) voltage level to RS232 and vice versa. RS232 is the method of transferring data using serial communication. MAX 232 is a dual receiver or driver having a capacitive voltage generator to supply RS232 voltage levels from a single supply of 5V. Each receiver converts RS232 inputs to 5V either Transistor Transistor Logic (TTL) or Complementary Metal Oxide Semiconductor (CMOS) levels. Whereas each of the drivers converts TTL or CMOS levels to RS232 levels.

RS232 receiver receives the input from the serial pins of the microcontroller. The receiver also receives the input from RS232's serial port and provides the output to the microcontroller's receiver pin. Four external capacitors are needed for MAX-232 and their values are ranging from 1uF to 22uF. MAX 232 has a lot of applications including battery-powered systems, terminals, modems, computers etc. Further details about MAX-232 will be given later in this tutorial.

Introduction to MAX232

• MAX232 is an integrated circuit (embedded in a single chip) designed by Maxim Integrated Products and acts as a Voltage Logic Converter i.e. it is used to convert TTL Logic level (Microcontrollers' COM Port) into TIA/EIA-232-F level(Laptop Serial Port RS-232) and vice versa.
• It is used for the communication between a Microcontroller and a PC/laptop.
• 9 Pin Serial Port on our Laptop works on RS232 Voltage Logic while our Microcontroller's Serial Port i.e. Tx, RX pins works on TTL Logic.
• Suppose you are working on a PIC16F877A Microcontroller and you want to connect to the Serial Pins of your Laptop, then you have to place MAX232 in between.
• In order to use MAX232, we have to design its small basic circuit in which we have to use 4 capacitors of 1uF, as shown in the below figure.
• It has several different applications e.g. computer, modem, battery-powered systems etc.

1. MAX232 Pinout

• MAX232 Pinout consists of 16 pins in total, the first 6 Pins are used to connect capacitors while the next 8 Pins are for serial port connections and the last two Pins are Power Pins.
• All of the pins are given in chronological order in the table shown below.

MAX232 Pinout
Pin No.	Pin Name	Pin No.	Pin Name
Pin # 1	Capacitor 1+	Pin # 9	R2 Out
Pin # 2	Capacitor 3+	Pin # 10	T2 In
Pin # 3	Capacitor 1-	Pin # 11	T1 In
Pin # 4	Capacitor 2+	Pin # 12	R1 Out
Pin # 5	Capacitor 2-	Pin # 13	R1 In
Pin # 6	Capacitor 4-	Pin # 14	T1 Out
Pin # 7	T2 Out	Pin # 15	GND
Pin # 8	R2 In	Pin # 16	Vcc

• A complete pin diagram along with animation and the real image of MAX 232, is shown in the figure below:

2. MAX232 Pins Functions

• MAX 232 has 16 pins in total as I have told you earlier, some of the pins have common features and some have different ones.
• The functions associated with all of the pins are provided in the table shown below.

3. MAX232 Schematic

• The schematic diagram of a device provides help in understanding its internal functionality.
• I have provided the labeled schematic diagram of MAX 232 as shown in the figure below.

4. MAX232 Packages

• MAX-232 has three different types of packages SOIC (16), PDIP (16) and SOP (16).
• All of the four packages are given in the table shown below.

5. MAX232 Package Dimensions

• The dimensions of all of the MAX 232 packages are shown in the table given below.

 

6. MAX232 Ratings

• The voltage, current and power ratings of any device display its power requirement i.e. how much voltage and current is required for its operation.
• I have provided MAX 232's current, voltage and power ratings in the table shown below.

7. MAX232 Applications

MAX 232 has a lot of real-life applications, a few of which are given below.

• Batter-powered systems.
• Modem.
• Terminals.
• Computers.

So, that is all from the tutorial Introduction to MAX232. I hope you have enjoyed this tutorial. If you have any kind of problem, you can ask me in the comments any time you want to ask, without even feeling any sort of hesitation. I will try my level best to solve your issues in a better way, if possible. Our team is also here to help you. I will explore further ICs in my later tutorial and will surely share all of them with you as well. So, till then, Take Care :)

Introduction to 2N3906

Hello everyone! I hope you all will be absolutely fine and having fun. Today, I am going to share my knowledge about Introduction to 2N3906. It is most common Positive Negative Positive (PNP) Bipolar Junction Transistor (BJT) available in the market now a days. 2N 3906 is specially designed for low power amplification purposes as well as for switching purposes. 2N 3906 is designed for low current, power and for medium voltages. It is capable of operating at moderately high speeds. The range of its collector current is form 10uA to 100mA. Further detail about 2N-3906 will be given later in this tutorial. Note:

• You should download 2n3906 Datasheet by clicking below button:

[dt_default_button link="https://www.sparkfun.com/datasheets/Components/2N3906.pdf" button_alignment="default" animation="fadeIn" size="medium" default_btn_bg_color="" bg_hover_color="" text_color="" text_hover_color="" icon="fa fa-chevron-circle-right" icon_align="left"]Download Datasheet[/dt_default_button]

Introduction to 2N3906

2N3906 is a PNP (Positive Negative Positive) BJT (Bipolar Junction Transistor). The basic purpose of its design is to use it for switching applications and for general purpose amplification. It can operate at low currents, low power and medium voltages. 2N-3906 real life applications include television, home appliances, small load switch transistor having high gain, general purpose amplifiers etc. 2N 3906 is shown in the figure below.

1. 2N3906 Pinout

• 2N-3906 has three pins in total i.e. emitter, base and collector.
• All of the three pins along with their symbol are given in the table shown below.

2. 2N3906 Pins Configuration

• A properly labeled pin diagram of any device results in better standing of the user.
• I have made a completely labeled diagram of 2N-3906 diode along with its animation.
• The complete pinout diagram along with animation, symbolic representation and the real image of 2N 3906 is shown in the figure below.

3. 2N3906 Packages

• 2N 3906 has two different type of packages 2N3906, 2N3906G, 2N3906RL1 and 2N 3906RLRAG.
• Both of theses packages along with their dimensions and part number are given in the table shown below.

4. 2N3906 Schematic

• The schematic diagram of a device helps us to understand its internal functionality.
• I have provided the labeled schematic diagram of 2N3906 as shown in the figure below.

5. 2N3906 Ratings

• The current, voltage and power ratings of any device shows its power requirement i.e. how much amount of current and voltage is sufficient for its operation.
• I have provided 2N-3906 current, power and voltage ratings in the table shown below.

6. 2N3906 Applications

• 2N3906 has a wide range of real life applications, a few of which are given below.
• Small load switch transistor with high gain and low saturation voltage.
• Suitable with television.
• Good for the home appliances.
• General purpose amplifiers.
• Switching applications.

So, thats all from the tutorial Introduction to 2N3906. I hope you enjoyed this amazing tutorial. If you have any kind of problem, you can ask me in comments, any time you want, without even feeling a bit of hesitation. I will try me level best to sort out your issues in a better way, if possible. Our team is also 24/7 available to help you out. I will explore further IC's and diodes in my upcoming tutorial and will share them with you as well for sure. So, till then, Take Care :)

Introduction to TL431

Hello everyone! I hope you all will be absolutely fine and having fun. Today, I am going to explain you about Introduction to TL431. TL 431 are programmable shunt regulator diodes having three terminals. Its a low temperature coefficient diode and can be programmed from reference voltage (Vref) up to 36V when it is attached to 2 external resistors. TL 431 has an impedance of 0.22 ohms and has a current range from 1mA to 100mA. In several different applications zener diodes can be replaced with TL 431 diode due to its efficiency. These applications include power supplies, Operational Amplifier (Op-amp) circuitry and digital voltmeters. TL-431 can either be used as positive or as negative voltage reference because it operates as shunt regulator. TL-431 has low output noise voltage. It is lead (Pb) free, halogen free and RoHS compliant. Further detail about TL 431 e.g. its features, characteristics and pin configuration will be explained later in this tutorial.

Introduction to TL431

TL431 is a shunt regulator diode and hence it can be used as either positive or negative voltage reference. It has a low output noise voltage. TL-431 can be replaced with zener diodes in many applications e.g. digital voltmeters, operational amplifier circuitry, power supplies etc. TL-431 is shown in the figure below.

1. TL431 Pinout

• TL-431 has three pins in total i.e. Reference, Anode and Cathode.
• All of the three pins along with their symbol are given in the table shown below.

2. TL431 Pins Configuration

• A properly labeled pin diagram of any device results in better standing of the user.
• I have made a completely labeled diagram of TL 431 diode along with its animation.
• The complete pinout diagram along with animation, symbolic representation and the real image of TL-431 is shown in the figure below.

3. TL431 Packages

• TL-431 has two different type of packages SOT-23(3) and SOT-23(5).
• Both of theses packages along with their dimensions and part number are given in the table shown below.

4. TL431 Schematic

• The schematic diagram of a device helps us to understand its internal functionality.
• I have provided the labeled schematic diagram of TL 431 as shown in the figure below.

5. TL431 Ratings

• The current, voltage and power ratings of any device shows its power requirement i.e. how much amount of current and voltage is sufficient for its operation.
• I have provided TL-431 current, power and voltage ratings in the table shown below.

6. TL431 Applications

There are a lot of applications associated with TL-431, a few of TL 431 real life applications are given below.

• Voltage monitoring.
• Comparator with integrated reference.
• Adjustable voltage referencing.
• Zener replacing.
• Adjustable current referencing.

So, thats all from the tutorial Introduction to TL431. I hope you enjoyed this amazing tutorial. If you have any kind of problem, you can ask me in comments, any time you want, without even feeling a bit of hesitation. I will try me level best to sort out your issues in a better way, if possible. Our team is also 24/7 available to help you out. I will explore further IC's and diodes in my upcoming tutorial and will share them with you as well for sure. So, till then, Take Care :)

Introduction to 1N4007

Hello everyone! I hope you all will be absolutely fine and having fun. Today, I am going to share my knowledge about Introduction to 1N4007. It is a PN junction diode. Diodes can be made by combining two different types of semiconductor e.g. P and N. PN junction is a junction formed between P and N types of semiconductors. You guys should also have a look at Introduction to 1N4148. 1N 4007 belongs to the series of 1NXXXX devices. Its an American standard numbering system standard used for semiconductor devices. This standard has been adopted globally now. In 1N 4007 the first part 1N indicates single junction semiconductor. 1N indicates 1 junction whereas N indicates the semiconductor diode. 4007 is the specific number to indicate the particular diode. From the electrical point of view, 1N 4007 is compatible with other rectifier diodes. The diodes belonging to 1N400X series can be replaced by this particular diode. They are normally used in Embedded Systems Projects. So, let's get started with 1N4007:

Introduction to 1N4007

1N4007 is a PN junction rectifier diode. These types of diodes allow only the flow of electrical current in one direction only. So, it can be used for the conversion of AC power to DC. 1N 4007 is electrically compatible with other rectifier diodes and can be used instead of any of the diode belonging to 1N400X series. 1N-4007 has different real life applications e.g. free wheeling diodes applications, general purpose rectification of power supplies, inverters, converters etc. You can download 1N4007 Datasheet by clicking below button: Download 1N4007 Datasheet

1. 1N4007 Pinout

• 1N 4007 has two (2) pins in total i.e. anode and cathode respectively.
• There are opposite charges on both of the pins, both the pins along with their name and charges are given in the table shown below.

2. 1N4007 Pins Configuration

• A properly labeled pin diagram of any device results in better standing of the user.
• I have made a completely labeled diagram of 1N-4007 diode along with its animation.
• The complete pinout diagram along with animation, symbolic representation and the real image of 1N 4007 is shown in the figure below.

 

3. 1N4007 Electrical Characteristics

• The electrical characteristics may include reverse voltage, reverse current, forward voltage, forward current etc.
• The different electrical characteristics associated with 1N-4007 is shown in the table given below along with their typical values and System International (SI) units.

4. 1N4007 Thermal Characteristics

• The thermal characteristics may include power dissipation, thermal resistance etc.
• Both of the above characteristics are provided along with their maximum values and SI units, in the table shown below.

5. 1N4007 Features

• Features are basically the speciality of any device which shows that how this device is different from the other devices and how efficient is this!
• The different features associated with 1N 4007 are provided in chronological order, in the table shown below.

6. 1N4007 Applications

1N4007 has a lot of real life applications in Embedded Systems, a few of the major application associated with the particular diode are given below:

• Converters.
• For switching purposes in Embedded systems.
• Free wheeling diodes applications.
• Inverters.
• General purpose rectification of power supplies.
• To avoid reverse current & protect Microcontrollers like Arduino or PIC Microcontroller etc.

6. 1N4007 Proteus Simulation

• I have designed a simple 1N4007 Proteus Simulation in which I have shown both of its states.
• This 1n4007 Proteus Simulation is shown in below figure:

• In the above figure, you can see both states of 1N4007 i.e. Forward Biased and Reverse Biased.
• In Forward Biased state, its allowing the current to pass through it and that's why LED is ON.
• While in the Reverse Biased state, !N4007 is in open state and that's why LED is OFF.

So that is all from the tutorial Introduction to 1N4007. I hope you enjoyed this exciting tutorial. If you face any kind of problem you can ask me in comments anytime you want, without even feeling any sort of hesitation. I will try my level best to solve your issues in a better way, if possible. Our team is also 24/ available to entertain you. I will explore further IC's in my upcoming tutorials and will surely share them with you as well. So, till then take care :)

Introduction to LM358

Hello everyone! I hope you all will be absolutely fine and having fun. Today, I am going to share my knowledge about Introduction to LM358. LM-358 consists of two independent high gain frequency compensated operational amplifier. They are specially designed to operate from a single supply or split supplies over a wide range of voltages. LM-358 have lot of amazing features associated with them. These features include wide supply ranges, low supply current drain, independent of supply voltage, wide unity gain bandwidth, ground includes I common mode input voltage range, low input bias, open loop differential voltage gain, internally frequency compensation etc. LM 358 has a lot real life applications e.g. Operational Amplifier (Op-amp) circuits, transducer amplifiers, DC gain blocks etc. LM-358 is available in as small size as chip. It is most commonly used device due to its cost efficiency. [otw_is sidebar=otw-sidebar-7]

Introduction to LM358

LM 358 consists of two independent high gain frequency compensated Operational Amplifier (Op-amp). These are designed for the operation of this device from single supply or split supplies for a wide range of voltages. LM-358 real life applications include DC gain blocks, active filters, transducer amplifier, Op-amp circuit design etc. Further detail about LM 358 will be given later in this tutorial.

1. LM358 Pinout

• LM 358 has eight (8) pins in total having different individual functions associated with each of them.
• All the pins along with their sequence number are given in the table shown below.

2. LM358 Pins Configuration

• A properly labeled pin diagram of any device results in better standing of the user.
• I have made a completely labeled diagram of LM-358 diode along with its animation.
• The complete pinout diagram along with animation, symbolic representation and the real image of LM 358 is shown in the figure below.

3. LM358 Packages

• LM 358 has four (4) different type of packages DSBGA, PDIP, TO-CAN and SOT-23(5).
• All of theses packages along with their dimensions and part number are given in the table shown below.

4. LM358 Symbolic Representation

• Symbolic for of a device shows its internal circuitry.
• LM 358 symbolic representation is shown in the figure below.

   

5. LM358 Ratings

• The voltage, current and power ratings of any device shows its power requirement i.e. how much amount of current and voltage is sufficient for its operation.
• I have provided LM-358 current, power and voltage ratings in the table shown below.

6. LM358 Advantages

• LM-358 has several different advantages, a few of which are given below.
• There is no need of dual supply.
• Compatibility with all forms of logic.
• Two Op-amps, compensated internally.
• Power drain suitable for battery operation.
• Direct sensing near ground.

7. LM358 Applications

• LM 358 has a wide range of real life applications, few of the major applications are given below.
• DC gain blocks.
• General signal conditioning.
• Transducer amplifiers.
• General signal amplification.
• Active filters.
• Operational amplifier circuits.
• Current loop transmitters for 4 to 20mA.

7. LM358 Proteus Simulation

• I have also designed a Proteus Simulation of LM358 which will give you better idea of its working.
• In this simulation, I have designed a small automatic LED ON OFF circuit depending on LDR value.
• The image is shown in below figure:

• You can see in above figure that I have attached the LDR at input pins while the LED is attached at the output pin of LM358.
• Now when LDR is dark, then LED will remain OFF but when LDR will come in Light then LED will also turn ON.
• The variable resistor is used for sensitivity purposes.
• In the below image I have shown its ON state:

• You can see in above figure that now LED is ON because LDR is in LIGHT.
• You can download this LM358 Proteus Simulation by clicking the below button:

Download Proteus Simulation

So, that is all from the tutorial Introduction to LM358. I hope you enjoyed this tutorial. If you have any kind of problem, you can ask me in comments, any time you want, without even feeling a bit of hesitation. I will try my level best to sort out your problems in a better way, if possible. Our team is also 24/7 here to help you out. I will explore further IC's and diodes in my upcoming tutorial and will surely share all of them with you as well. So, till then, Take Care :)

Introduction to LM339

Hello everyone! I hope you all will be absolutely fine and having fun. Today, I am going to share my knowledge about Introduction to LM339. LM339 belongs to the family of devices having 4 independent voltage comparators. Each comparator is designed in such a way that it is capable of operating from a single power source over a wide range of power supplies. It can also operate for split power supplies. There is a unique characteristic of comparators, Input Common-Mode Voltage Range (I_CMR) includes a ground even when it is operating from a single power supply voltage.

Basically, LM339 is a comparator IC having four built-in comparators. The basic purpose of a comparator is to rotate the signal between analog and digital domains. At its input terminal, it compares the two different input voltages applied, gives digital output and indicates the larger input applied at the input terminal.

Introduction to LM339

LM 339 is a comparator IC having 4 builtin comparators. A comparator rotates a signal between digital and analog domain. First of all, it compares the 2 different inputs applied at the input terminal and then gives the output in digital form in order to indicate which of the input applied has a larger amplitude. It has a lot of real life applications e.g. basic comparator, driving CMOS, driving TTL, low frequency op-amp, Transducer amplifier etc. Further detail about the particular IC will be given later in this tutorial.

1. LM339 Pinout

• LM 339 has fourteen (14) pins in total including four inverting input pins, four non inverting pins, four output pins, voltage and ground pin.
• All of the pins along with their sequence number are shown in the table given below.

2. LM339 Pins Configuration

• The properly labeled LM 339 pin configuration diagram is shown in the figure below, for the better understanding of the reader (specially the students).

3. LM339 Packages

• LM 339 has different packages including LM-339DG, LM-339NG etc.
• A few of the packages are given in the table shown below.

4. LM339 Features

• There are several different features associated with LM 339.
• A few of the major features including low supply current, low input bias current, low input offset current, low output saturation voltage etc. are taken into account.
• The major features along with their values and System International (SI) units are provided in the table shown below.

5. LM339 Ratings

• The current, voltage and power rating associated with LM 339 are given along with their typical values and SI units, in the table shown below.

LM339 Applications

There is a wide range of applications associated with LM 339 comparator IC. A few of the major applications along with their designed circuits are explained below.

Basic comparator

• The circuit designed for Basic Comparator is shown in the figure below:

You can see from the above figure that the basic comparator consists of LM 339 with two different reference input voltages and a15K resistor.

Driving CMOS

• The circuit designed for Driving CMOS is shown in the figure below.

• You can see from the above figure that the driving CMOS consists of LM 339 with two different reference input voltages and a 100K resistor.

Low frequency op-amp

• The circuit designed for Low Frequency Op-amp is shown in the figure below.

• You can see from the above figure that the Low Frequency Op-amp consists of LM 339 with two different reference input voltages, a 15K resistor and a 100K resistor having voltage gain of around 100.

Transducer Amplifier

• The circuit designed for Transducer Amplifier is shown in the figure below.

• You can see from the above figure that the Transducer amplifier consists of LM 339 with two different reference input voltages, a 3K resistor, a 20M resistor and two 10K resistors.

Zero crossing detector

• The circuit designed for Zero Crossing Detector is shown in the figure below.

• You can see from the above figure that the Transducer amplifier consists of LM 339 with two different reference input voltages, a 10K resistor, a 20M resistor, three 5.1K resistor, two 100K resistors and 1N4148 diode.
• There are few other applications associated with LM 339 and are given below.
• Limit comparator.
• Crystal controlled oscillator.
• Negative reference comparator.
• Driving TTL

So, that is all from the tutorial Introduction to LM339. I hope you enjoyed this tutorial. If you are facing any kind of problem, you can freely ask me in comments anytime you want without even feeling any sort of hesitation. I will try my level best to solve your issues in a proper way, if possible. Moreover, our team is also available 24/7 for your guidance. I will explore different IC’s and transistors in my upcoming tutorial and will surely share them with you as well. So, till then Take Care :)

Introduction to LM324

Hello everyone! I hope you all will be absolutely fine and having fun. Today, I am going to elaborate about the Introduction to LM324. It is an Operational Amplifier (Op-amp) consists of four channels. Its a low cost device having true differential inputs.For single supply applications LM 324 are superior to the other operational amplifiers. LM-324 is capable of operating at the minimum voltage up to 3V and at the high voltage levels up to 32V. One of the major advantage of LM-324 is that common mode input range includes negative supply which eliminates the need of external biasing. Negative power supply voltage is also included in output voltage range. This device is lead (Pb) free, halogen free and RoHS compliant. It consists of four amplifiers per package. LM 324 real life applications include conventional amplifier circuits, transducer amplifier, DC gain blocks etc. Further detail about LM324 e.g. its pins configuration, thermal and electrical characteristics, its features and applications will be explained in detail later in this tutorial. [otw_is sidebar=otw-sidebar-7]

Introduction to LM324

LM324 is an operational amplifier consists of four channels. It is most commonly used amplifier due to its low cost factor. It consists of four amplifiers per package and is superior to other amplifiers for single supply applications. Negative power supply included in common mode input and output range eliminates the need of external biasing. It has several different applications e.g. DC gain blocks, transducer amplifiers, conventional amplifier circuits etc. LM 324 is shown in the figure given below.

1. LM324 Pinout

• We must know the description of each pin before using any of the devices for its appropriate use.
• LM-324 has fourteen (14) pins in total having different individual functions associated with them.
• All of the fourteen pins along with their names are given in chronological order in the table shown below.

2. LM324 Configurations

• Each of the pin should be clearly labeled, if someone is going to use any device for the first time or after a long time.
• Properly labeled pinout diagram of any device results in better understanding of its functionality.
• So, I have made a completely labeled diagram for LM 324 pinout, you can see it in the figure shown below.

3. LM324 Packages

• LM-324 has four different type of packages having different individual dimensions.
• The packages include TSSOP, SOIC, CDIP and PDIP.
• ALl of the above packages are given along with their dimensions, in the table shown below.

4. LM324 Ratings

• The current, power and voltage ratings of any device indicates its power requirements i.e. the amount of current and voltage at which a particular device starts its operation properly.
• The current, voltage and power ratings of LM-324 are provided in the table shown below.

5. LM324 Schematic Diagram

• The schematic diagram of a device helps to understand its internal functionality.
• I have provided a schematic diagram of LM-324 as shown in the figure below.

• From the above figure, you can see that LM 324 consists of four amplifiers per package.
• The inputs of these amplifiers are connected to the pin number 2, 3, 5, 6, 9, 10, 12 and 13  respectively.
• The output of these amplifiers are connected to 1, 7, 8 and 14 pins.

6. LM324 Applications

There are different LM324 real life applications, a few of which are given below.

• Conventional amplifier circuits
• Transducer amplifier.
• DC gain blocks.

6. LM324 Proteus Simulation

• You should have a look at Automatic Street Light Project in Proteus, I have used LM324 in this simulation.
• I have also designed an LM324 Proteus Simulation so that you can get better idea of its working.
• I have designed a simple circuit in which LED goes ON or OFF automatically depending on LDR value.
• It's OFF state is shown in below figure:

• You can see in above figure that I have attached LDR at inputs while the LED at its output.
• Variable resistor is used for controlling the sensitivity of LDR sensor.
• It's ON state is shown in below figure:

• You can download this LM324 Proteus Simulation by clicking the below button:

Download Proteus Simulation

So that is all from the tutorial Introduction to LM324. I hope you enjoyed this exciting tutorial. If you face any sort of issues you can ask me in comments anytime you want, without even feeling any kind of hesitation. I will try my level best to solve your issues in a better way, if possible. Our team is also 24/ here to entertain you. I will explore further IC's in my upcoming tutorials and will surely shre them with you as well. So, till then take care :)

Introduction to TL494

Hello everyone I hope you all will be absolutely fine and having fun. Today, I am going to share my knowledge on Introduction to TL494. It supports all of the functions that are necessary for the Pulse Width Modulation (PWM) control circuits. Power supply control is the basic purpose of the TL494 device. It has an output control circuit, a flipflop, dead time comparator, two different error amplifiers, 5V reference voltage, oscillator and a PWM comparator. TL 494 operates properly between the frequency of 1kHz to 300kHz. The Dead Time Comparator (DTC) provides around 5% of dead time. Both of the error amplifiers display a common-mode voltage from -0.3V to (Vcc-2)V. If we provide a sawtooth wave at the CT terminal and terminate RT to the reference output (Vref), the oscillator will be bypassed. The internal circuit of TL 494 resists the double pulse at the output. TL494 has a wide range of applications e.g. microwave ovens, PCs, washing machines, Solar power inverters, solar microinverters, smoke detectors etc. Further detail about this device will be given later in this tutorial.

Introduction to TL494

TL 494 is a chip that deals with all of the functions required for Pulse Width Modulation (PWM) control circuits. It consists of two error amplifiers, oscillator, flipflop, 5V reference voltage, dead time comparator, PWM comparator etc. The range of the operating frequency for this device is from 1kHz to 300kHz. TL 494 can be used in washing machines, microwave ovens, solar power inverters, solar microinverters, smoke detectors etc.

1. TL494 Pinout

• TL494 has 16 pins in total, all of the pins are provided along with their names in the table shown below:
  1. Pin # 1: Non-Inverting Input.
  2. Pin # 2: Inverting Input.
  3. Pin # 3: Feedback.
  4. Pin # 4: Dead Time Control.
  5. Pin # 5: CT.
  6. Pin # 6: RT.
  7. Pin # 7: Ground (GND).
  8. Pin # 8: C1.
  9. Pin # 9: E1.
  10. Pin # 10: E2.
  11. Pin # 11: C2.
  12. Pin # 12: Voltage (Vcc).
  13. Pin # 13: Output Control.
  14. Pin # 14: Reference Voltage.
  15. Pin # 15: Inverting Input.
  16. Pin # 16: Non Inverting Input.

2. TL494 Pin Configuration

• The properly labeled diagram for the TL 494 pins is shown in the figure below.

Modified Sine Wave using TL494

• Here's a circuit where TL494 is used as a standalone IC to generate modified Sine Wave:

TL494 Packages

• There are several different packages of TL 494, a few of which are given below.

TL494 Ratings

• The current and power ratings of TL494 are provided in the table shown below.

TL494 Features

• The features associated with the device TL494 are provided in the table shown below.

TL494 Internal Block Diagram

• The internal block diagram of TL 494 is shown in the figure given below.

TL494 Functional Block Diagram

• The functional block diagram of TL 494 is shown in the figure below.

TL494 Applications

TL 494 has a wide range of applications, a few of which are given below.

• AC/DC Power supply.
• E-Bikes.
• Server PSUs.
• Dual controller.
• Personal Computers.
• Smoke detectors.
• Washing machines.
• Solar power inverter.
• Microwave Ovens.

Note:

• I will upload its Proteus Simulation soon in this tutorial.

So that is all from the tutorial, Introduction to TL494, I hope you all have enjoyed this exciting tutorial. If you face any sort of problems you can ask me in the comments anytime you want without even feeling any kind of hesitation. I will try my level best to solve your issues in a better way, if possible. Our team is also 24/7 here to entertain you. I will explore different hardware and software sections in my upcoming tutorials and will surely share all of them with all of you as well. So, till then, Take Care :)

BC547: Datasheet, Pinout, Working, Applications and Simulation

Hello everyone! I hope you all will be absolutely fine and having fun. Today, I am going to give you a detailed Introduction to BC547. It is an NPN bipolar junction transistor (BJT), mainly used for switching and current amplification.

Its maximum current gain is around 800. So, let's have a detailed overview of BC 547.

Where To Buy?
No.	Components	Distributor	Link To Buy
1	BC547	Amazon	Buy Now

Introduction to BC547

• BC547 is a 3-Terminal NPN Bipolar Junction Transistor(BJT), mostly used for switching purposes and current amplification.
• BC547 Pins(Terminals) from left to right are called:
  • Collector.
  • Base.
  • Emitter.
• Depending on the voltage applied at Base Terminal, BC547 can operate in two states, named:
  • Forward Biased.
  • Reverse Biased.

BC547 as Reverse Biased

• If Base Terminal is connected to the Ground(0V), Collector and Emitter will act as an open switch and the transistor is said to be acting as Reverse Biased.
• In a Reverse Biased State, no current will flow through the transistor.

BC547 as Forward Biased

• If a HIGH signal(normally 5V) is provided at the Base Terminal, Collector and Emitter will start acting as a closed switch and the transistor is said to be acting as Forward Biased.
• In Forward Biased State, the current will start flowing from Collector to Emitter.
• The maximum Collector current limit of BC547 is 110mA, so the load must be lower than that.

• Now let's have a look at the datasheet of BC547:

BC547 Datasheet

• If you want to get in-depth knowledge about any electronic component, then you should read its datasheet.
• You can download BC547 Datasheet by clicking the below button:

Download BC547 Datasheet

• Now, let's have a look at the pinout of BC547:

BC547 Pinout

• BC547 Pinout consists of 3 pins in total, named: Collector(C), Base(B) and Emitter(E).
• All of these three pins along with their symbols are shown in the below table:

BC547 Pins Configuration

• The properly labeled pin configuration diagram of BC 547 along with its animation is shown in the figure given below.

• In the last section, we will design a Proteus Simulation of BC547, which will give you a better understanding of How to use these pins of BC547.

BC547 Transistor Working

• As we know BC547 is an NPN transistor, so in its design, a P-region(Base) is sandwiched between two N-type regions.
• At the border of the P and N, a depletion region is created, which blocks the flow of charge carriers from one region to another.
• When the input voltage is applied at its Base terminal, some amount of current starts to flow from the base to the emitter and controls the current at the collector.
• The voltage between the base and the emitter (VBE), is negative at the emitter and positive at the base terminal for its NPN construction.
• The polarity of voltages applied for each junction is shown in the figure below:

BC547 Ratings

• The current, power and voltage ratings of BC547 along with their values and System International (SI) units are provided in the table shown below.

• Moreover, the storage temperature, as well as operating temperature for the transistor BC 547, is also given in the table shown above.

BC547 Thermal Characteristics

• The thermal characteristics associated with BC 547 are provided along with typical values, in the table shown below.

BC547 Applications

• There are a lot of applications associated with BC547, a few of the major applications are given below.
  • BC547 can be used for switching purposes.
  • We can also use it for amplification purposes.

BC547 Proteus Simulation

• I have made a simple Proteus ISIS simulation using BC 547 for the control of the DC motor.
• The screenshot of the simulation is shown in the figure below.

• The running form of the simulation is shown in the figure below.

• By pressing the button encircled in the figure above, you will be able to observe the working of the DC motor.
• I have made another simulation for DC motor control using Arduino UNO and BC 547.
• The simulation's screenshot is shown in the figure below.

• The source code for the above simulation is given below.

int MotorInput = 2;
int MotorOutput = 7;

void setup() 
{
    pinMode(MotorInput, INPUT_PULLUP);
    pinMode(MotorOutput , OUTPUT);
}

void loop() 
{
    if(digitalRead(MotorInput) == HIGH)
    {
      digitalWrite(MotorOutput, HIGH);
    }
    if(digitalRead(MotorInput) == LOW)
    {
      digitalWrite(MotorOutput, LOW);
    }
  
}

• The running form of the simulation is shown in the figure below.

 

• First of all, you need to change the logic state from 0 to 1, after uploading the hex file, the motor will automatically start to rotate.

That is all from the tutorial Introduction to BC547. I hope you enjoyed this exciting tutorial. If you are facing any sort of problem regarding anything, you can ask me in the comments anytime you want, without even feeling any kind of hesitation. I will try my level best to solve your issues in a better way, if possible. Our entire team is also 24/7 there to entertain you. I will explore further hardware equipment in my upcoming tutorials. So till then, Take Care :)