The Engineering Projects

Introduction to 7805

Hey Fellas! We always strive to keep you updated with best and valuable information so you keep coming back for what we have to offer. Today, I am going to uncover the details on the Introduction to 7805. It is a positive voltage regulator used for providing constant output voltage over a wide range of input voltage. Before we move on, you must be clear what is voltage regulation? Voltage regulation is referred as the measure of voltage change between input and output. The IC 7805 does the same thing. It provides constant output voltage when a range of different voltage is applied at the input terminal. This component comes with three terminals called input, ground, and output. This is called positive voltage regulator because it generates positive voltage with respect to the ground terminal. Transistors and voltage regulator IC like 7805 work in a similar way with the intention of providing voltage regulation. I'll discuss each and everything related this integrated circuits, so you get a clear idea what it does, and how it is used over a wide range of applications. Let's dive in and explore what is this about and everything you need to know.

Introduction to 7805

• 7805 is an IC used for voltage regulation and comes in TO-220 version. This component belongs to 78xx series where xx defines the output voltage it generates.
• Voltage fluctuation is a common practice during the execution of many electronic projects. This component overcomes and prevents this voltage fluctuation by providing a constant output voltage at the output terminal.
• The best part is that it doesn't require any additional components to set output voltage.
• It is a compact IC that comes with a built-in protection circuit that avoids the circuits from too much heating, making it suitable for circuits drawing high current.
• The input voltage range applied to the input terminals of this IC varies from 7 V to 18 V (in some cases 7 to 35 V), resulting in the generation of constant output voltage around 5 V.
• You can see, there is a huge difference between input voltage and the output voltage that gets regulated. This difference is discharged as heat. The surge of heat generation can damage the device and affect the overall project performance.
• There are two ways to overcome this heat generation i.e. you can use a heat sink that is widely used for heat dissipation OR you can limit the input current 2 to 3 V above the regulated voltage at the output terminal. For example, you'll get 5 V at the output terminal, so it is suitable to limit input voltage within 7 or 8 V.

• Heat sink comes in different sizes based on the amount of heat that is required to disperse. It is advised to calculate the size of heat sink before you put your voltage regulator in operation.
• With the addition of heat sink, this IC can control output current at around 1.0 A.
• This voltage regulator is an ideal choice for the applications where safe area compensation, thermal shutdown, and current limiting is required.
• This device is designed with the purpose of getting constant output voltage, however, it can be coupled with external components with the intention of generating desired voltage and current.
• This IC comes with an accurate circuit which generates constant voltage so no capacitors are required to produce smooth output, however, it is advised to place 10µF capacitors in the input and output terminal to remain in the safer side.

Pinout of 7805

• Following figure shows the pinout of this voltage regulator.

• Pin 1 shows the input voltage applied to this regulator which ranges between 7 to 18 V.
• Pin 2 shows the ground terminal. Voltage regulator generates positive voltage with respect to the ground terminal.
• Pin 3 shows the output terminal where regulated voltage is obtained. Regulated voltage shows the tolerance between 1.5 % to 2 %.
• This regulator has a capacity of controlling output current around 1 A.
• It shows a voltage dropout around 2 V. It is advised to provide minimum 7 V at the input terminal in order to obtain exact 5 V at the output terminal.

Absolute Maximum Ratings

• Following figure shows the absolute maximum ratings of 7805.

• These are the stress ratings, which if exceed from absolute maximum ratings, can damage the device severely.
• Before you place this regulator in the circuit, make sure it undergoes and exhibits same stress ratings as defined by the manufacturer.
• Similarly, it these stress ratings are applied for a maximum period of time above the normal operating conditions, they can affect the device reliability.
• These ratings are obtained with a storage temperature range at around 150 °C.
• This IC exhibits a thermal resistance around 5 °C/W which is the resistance in the heat flow.

Applications

This voltage regulator is used over a wide range of applications. Following are some main applications of this regulator.

• Used in a circuit where a constant voltage is required.
• It is used in a phone charger and portable CD player.
• UPS power supply circuit and remote control extension make use of this regulator.
• This regulator is widely used where internal circuit current limiting is required.
• Safe area compensation is another advantage obtained from this regulator.
• This regulator is mainly used for generating constant voltage output, but it can be customized to use for the required current and voltage at the output.
• It is an ideal choice for the applications which support current around 1.0 A to 1.5 A which cannot be obtained without proper heat sinking.
• Safe operating area protection and thermal shutdown make it suitable for many applications involving high temperature and pressure.

That's all for today. I hope you have found this article useful. If you are unsure or have any question, you can ask me in the comment section below. I'd love to help you according to best of my expertise in any way I can. Keep your feedback and suggestions coming. They allow us to provide you quality work that aligns with your needs and demands. Thanks for reading the article.

Introduction to 2n3792

Hey Guys! Hope you are doing great. Transistors are the fundamental parts of the recent electronic devices. They are available in two types i.e. NPN and PNP transistors. Based on the technical aspect and utilization, both types come with different benefits and advantages. Today, I am going to discuss the details on the Introduction to 2n3792. It is a PNP (positive-negative-positive) silicon bipolar power transistor mainly used for amplification and medium speed switching. It is manufactured using epitaxial planer process and comes in TO-3 casing. I'll cover each and everything related to this transistor so you don't need to go anywhere and find all information in one place. Let's explore what is this about, its main applications and everything you need to know.

Introduction to 2n3792

• The 2n3792 is a PNP bipolar transistor which is mainly used for amplification and medium speed switching applications.
• It consists of three layers where one N-doped layer is housed between two P-doped layers.
• It has three terminals called emitter, base, and collector. All these terminals are different in terms of their doping concentrations. The emitter is highly doped as compared to base and collector terminals.
• In this transistor, base-emitter is more positive with respect to base and collector. While negative biased voltage is applied at the base terminal.
• It is a current controlled device where small current at the base side is used to control the large current at other terminals.

• In this PNP transistor, current directions and voltage polarities will be reversed as compared to NPN transistors.
• It works in a similar way to NPN transistor i.e. both are used for amplification purpose where small current at the base side is used to control the large current at the emitter and collector side, however, there is one exception, unlike NPN transistor, holes are diffused through base from the emitter and collected by the collector.
• This PNP transistor is rarely used for amplification purpose because conduction carried out by the movement of electrons is considered more valuable than conduction carried out by the movement of holes.

Pinout of 2n3792

• Following figure shows the pinout of this PNP transistor. It consists of three terminals.

1. Base 2. Emitter 3. Collector 

• Voltage is applied at the base terminal, which draws small current.
• The output current obtained at the collector terminal is highly dependent on the voltage applied at the base terminal. This process is used for amplification purpose.

Circuits Diagram of 2n3792

• Following figure shows the circuit diagram of 2n3792.

• Current at the emitter terminal is equal to the sum of current at the base and collector side. The emitter is highly doped so it exhibits more current as compared to other terminals.
• In this transistor current direction is reversed as compared to NPN transistor. In this case, current flows from collector to emitter.
• Voltage polarities are also reversed. Negatively biased voltage is applied at the base terminal in order to initiate holes reaction which is then used to control the large current at the other terminals.
• As the name suggests, this is a bipolar junction transistor where conduction is carried out by both charge carriers i.e. electrons and holes, but holes are majority charge carriers in this case. While electrons are majority charge carriers in NPN transistors.

Absolute Maximum Ratings of the 2n3792

• Following figure shows the absolute maximum rating of the 2n3792.

• These are the stress ratings that play an important role in the selection of this transistor for electronic circuits.
• If stress ratings exceed the absolute maximum ratings, they can damage the device.
• Similarly, if these ratings are applied for the maximum period of time above normal operating conditions, they can effect the reliability of the transistor. Before you pick this transistor for your project, make sure, it exhibits and undergoes same ratings as defined by the manufacturer.
• Power dissipation is 150 W and these absolute maximum ratings are taken at the absolute junction temperature around 200 ºC.
• Thermal resistance is 1.17 ºC/W which is the measure of resistance to the heat flow.

Applications

• This transistor is used for medium speed switching applications.
• It is also used for an amplification purpose.

That’s all for today. I hope you have found this article useful. If you are unsure or have any question, you can ask me in the comment section below. Your suggestions and feedback will be highly appreciated, they allow us to provide you quality work that resonates with your needs and expectations. Thanks for reading the article.

Introduction to 2n4123

Hey Guys! I am back to give you a daily dose of information so you can excel and grow in your relevant field and keep coming back for what we have to offer. If you are a hobbyist or student, you require a transistor for the execution of your project every now and then. Today, I am going to unlock the details on the Introduction to 2n4123. It is an NPN (negative-positive-negative) general purpose transistor which is mainly used for the amplification and switching purpose where collector current around 100mA is required. It is a semiconductor device mainly composed of silicon and comes with three terminals where a voltage applied to the one pair of terminals is used to control the current at the other pair of terminals. I'll break down each and everything related to this transistor in easy steps so you can grab the main concept easily. Let's dive in.

Introduction to 2n4123

• The 2n4123 is an NPN bipolar junction transistor mainly used for amplification and switching purpose, especially where collector current of 100mA is required.
• This transistor comes with three terminals called emitter, base, and collector that are used for the external connection with the electronic circuits.
• All these three terminals are different in terms of doping concentration. Emitter terminal is highly doped as compared to base and collector terminals.
• The base terminal is lightly doped which controls the number of electrons. Collector terminal is moderately doped which collects the number of electrons from the base terminal.
• Actually, NPN transistor is a combination of diodes joining back to back.

• This NPN transistor is termed as a current controlled device which is different than JFET that is voltage controlled device.
• One P-doped semiconductor layer is housed between the other two N-doped layers. The P-doped layer represents the base terminal while other two layers represent emitter and collector respectively.
• When a voltage is applied at the base terminal, it draws small current which is then used to control large current at the emitter and collector terminals.
• This process is used for amplification purpose where small current controls the large current.
• An output current obtained at the collector terminal is highly dependent on the intensity of voltage applied at the base terminal.
• This transistor operates in forward biased mode. If a transistor is not forward biased, collector current will be zero, no matter how much voltage is applied at the base terminal.

2n4123 Pinout

Following figure shows the pinout of this NPN transistor which mainly consists of three terminals. 1. Emitter 2. Base 3. Collector 

• When a voltage is applied at the base terminal, it triggers the electron reaction, resulting in the diffusion of electrons from the base to collector terminal.
• This movement of electrons is highly dependent on the voltage applied at the base terminal.
• The number of electrons diffused into the base terminal from the emitter is greater than the number of holes diffused into the emitter region.
• When the electron enters the base terminal it combines with the hole inside the base terminal where resulting pair disappears.
• The base terminal cannot control all electrons diffused into it from the emitter terminal, resulting in the transfer of electrons from the base to collector terminal.

Circuit Diagram of 2n4123

• Following figure shows the circuit diagram of the 2n4123.

• Current at the emitter terminal is equal to the sum of base and collector current because doping concentration of emitter is more than other terminals.
• The base is more positive with respect to the emitter which makes it an ideal choice for controlling the number of electrons.
• There are two current gain factors that are mostly used to determine the characteristics of the transistor. One is common-emitter current gain which is a ratio between collector current and base current. This is called Beta and denoted by ß.
• Its value ranges between 20 to 1000, however, the standard value is taken as 200.
• Beta is a ratio between two currents so it exhibits no unit. It is also known as amplification factor and determines the amount of current being amplified.
• Another current gain is common-base current gain which is a ratio between collector current and emitter current. It is called alpha and denoted by a. Alpha value ranges between 0.95 to 0.99, however, most of the time its value is taken as unity.
• It is important to note that if we interchange emitter and collector, then the transistor will become reverse biased and these current gains show low value as compared to values taken from forward biased transistor.
• In this NPN transistor, electrons are main charge carriers, which is different than PNP transistor where holes are major charge carriers.

Absolute Maximum Ratings of 2n4123

• Following figure shows the absolute maximum ratings of this transistor.

• These are the stress ratings that must be controlled before you place this component in the electronic circuit.
• If these stress ratings are exceeded from the absolute maximum ratings, they can damage the device at large, which ultimately affect the performance of the project.
• Similarly, if these stress ratings are applied for a maximum period of time above normal operating conditions, they can affect the device reliability.
• These ratings are determined on the basis of the maximum junction temperature of 150 °C.

Applications

• This NPN transistor is mainly used for general purpose amplification.
• Switching applications involve this NPN transistor where collector current around 100mA is required.

That's all for today. I hope you have found this article useful. If you are unsure or have any question, you can ask me in the comment section below. I'd love to help you in any way I can. Keep your suggestions coming. Your valuable suggestions and feedback keep us busy providing you quality work that resonates with your field of interest. Thanks for reading the article.

Magnetic Reed Switch Library for Proteus

Hello friends, I hope you all are doing great. In today's tutorial, I am going to share new Magnetic Reed Switch Library for Proteus. We are quite proud to share it as its not been designed before. Our TEP Team has designed it and I think they need a little appreciation. :P You can interface it with any Microcontroller like Arduino, PIC or 8051 Microcontroller etc. As Proteus is a simulation software so we can't produce magnetic field in it. That's why, we have placed a TestPin and when you provide HIGH Signal to that TestPin then it will act as it has magnet around. Similarly, if you provide LOW Signal to that TestPin then it will behave normal and will sense no magnet around. Rite now, we have just designed two Magnetic Reed Switches but soon we will design other Reed Switches as well. So, let's get started with How to download and use Magnetic Reed Switch Library for Proteus.

Magnetic Reed Switch Library for Proteus

• First of all, download this Magnetic Reed Switch Library for Proteus by clicking the below button:

Download Proteus Library Files

• You will get a .rar file so unzip it using winrar.
• Inside this .rar file, you will find three Proteus Library files, named as:
  • MagneticReedSwitchesLibraryTEP.IDX
  • MagneticReedSwitchesLibraryTEP.DLL
  • MagneticReedSwitchesLibraryTEP.HEX
• Place all these three files in the Library folder of your Proteus 7 or 8 Professional.

Note:

• If you are new to Proteus 7 or 8 Professional, then you should first read How to add new Library in Proteus 8 Professional.

• Here are the images of these real Magnetic Reed Switch Modules along with our designed modules in Proteus:

• We have designed these two modules, both of these modules give digital output only in Proteus but in real the reed module with red color also gives analog output.
• We are not yet able to produce analog output in Proteus, so that's why we have only digital output. :)
• Now I hope that you have placed all those three Proteus Library files in the Library folder of your Proteus software, so open your Proteus software or restart it.
• In Proteus software, go to your components search box and make a search for Magnetic Reed Switch as shown in below figure:

• Now place both of these modules in your Proteus software and they will look something, as shown in below figure:

• Double click any of these modules and its Properties panel will open up.
• Now in the Program File section, browse to our downloaded Library file MagneticReedSwitchesLibraryTEP.HEX as shown in below figure:

• Now click OK to close this Properties window.
• You can see we have four pins in total attached to our Magnetic Reed Switch, which are:
  • Vcc: We have to provide +5V at this pin.
  • GND: We have to provide Ground (0V) at this pin.
  • D0: That's the Output Pin, it will be HIGH when some magnet is around otherwise remain LOW.
  • TestPin: As Proteus a simulation so we can't provide magnetic field, that's why we have palced this TestPin. If TestPin is HIGH then it means magnetic field is around and if its LOW then there's no magnet around.
• I hope you have understood the pinout of this Reed Switch, so now let's design a simple simulation to test them out.
• So, design a simple circuit in Proteus as shown in below figure:

• Now run your simulation, and change the Logic State from 0 to 1, which is connected at TestPin.
• If everything goes fine then you will get such results:

• As you can see in the above figure that D0 Pin is HIGH when I changed the Logic State from 0 to 1 and that's why LED attached at D0 Pin is now ON.
• I have also designed a similar simulation for the other Magnetic Reed Switch and its ON state is shown in below figure:

• I have already added both of these simulations in the above download file.
• So, first add your Library and then run these simulations.
• I will soon interface this sensor with different Microcontrollers like Arduino, 8051 Microcontroller, PIC Microcontroller etc.

So, that's was all for today. I hope you will enjoy this Magnetic Reed Switch Library for Proteus and will use it in your Engineering Projects. Thanks for reading & have fun !!! :)

Diode: Definition, Symbol, Working, Characteristics, Types & Applications

Hi Guys! Hope you are doing great. Today, we will have a look at an electronic component named Diode. We will discuss Diode working, Symbol, Applications and characteristics in detail.

A diode is an electronic component, that allows the flow of current in one direction only. It exhibits low resistance in one direction and very high resistance in the opposite direction. Whoever has been a science student, knows about diodes. Although it seems to be a tiny component of a circuit, apparently it is true but it has a lot of complexities or you can say, it's a storm in a teacup.

Diodes are normally used in rectifiers, where they convert AC signals to DC signals. They come with a wide range of applications including power conversion, radio modulation, logic gates, temperature measurements and current steering. I'll try to cover everything related to diodes so let's get started:

Diode Definition

• A diode is a 2-terminal, basic discreet electronic component, made up of semiconductor material, which allows a unidirectional flow of current through it, i.e it only conducts current in one direction.
• A diode is analogous to a uni-directional water flow valve, which allows the water to flow in one direction but restricts it to flow backward.
• Diode consists of two terminals, named:
  • Anode (+).
  • Cathode (-).
• These terminals are connected to two doping regions:
  • P-Type region.
  • N-Type region.
• The P-Type region consists of positively charged ions called Holes, while the N-Type region consists of negatively charged electrons. We will discuss its construction in detail later.

• In a diode, current flows from Anode to Cathode(diode acts as a closed switch), but if the current flows in the opposite direction(i.e. from Cathode to Anode), the diode will block it, so we can say, the diode is acting as an open switch.

Diode Symbol

• The diode symbol and its real package are shown in the below figure:

• The arrowhead in a diode symbol represents the direction of the current flow i.e. current can flow from anode to cathode.

Construction of Diode

Now let's have a look at the construction of a diode:

• A diode is normally made up of a semiconductor material i.e. silicon, germanium, gallium arsenide etc.
• Two crystals of the same semiconductor material(normally silicon) are doped with different types of impurities, one crystal with pentavalent impurity, while the second one with trivalent, to create two types of semiconductor materials named:
  • P-Type Semiconductor: Majority Charge Carriers are Holes(+).
  • N-Type Semiconductor: Majority Charge Carriers are Electrons(-).
• When these two semiconductors are joined/merged together, the free electrons from the N-Type start to move towards the P-Type region, while the Holes start moving towards the N-Type region.
• At the border of these two regions, electrons get combined with Holes and neutralized.
• These neutralized atoms create a layer at the border(of N-Type & P-Type regions) and stop the flow of electrons & Holes. This newly created third layer/region is called the depletion region.
• The depletion region is very small in size and acts as a barrier for the flow of charge carriers(i.e. electrons & Holes) from the N-type to P-type region.
• Below diagram will give you a better idea of Diode construction:

• As you can see in the above figure, we have 3 regions in a final diode, named:

1. N-Type Region: Majority Charge Carriers are Electrons(-).
2. P-Type Region: Majority Charge Carriers are Holes(+).
3. Depletion Region: No Charge(Neutral)

• Two electrically conductive electrodes/probes are connected to these two Regions and are called:
  • Cathode: Connected to N-Type Region.
  • Anode: Connected to P-Type Region.

You must have understood by now, how diodes are constructed? Now, let's have a look at How diode works?

Diode Working

As we discussed in the above section, when two semiconductor materials are merged together, a momentary flow of charge carriers occurs, which results in the creation of a depletion region. This state of the diode is normally termed as Zero Biasing State, as there's no power applied at any terminal. In operational mode, the diode has two other biasing states, named as:

• Forward biased.
• Reverse biased.

Diode as Forward Biased

• The PN Junction created at the center of two regions is very small but it's powerful enough to stop the free electrons from passing through it.
• So, if we could provide some external power to these electrons, they can break this barrier and can make their entry into the P-Type region.
• This external power required to overcome the depletion region is normally termed as a Forward Threshold Voltage of diode.
• This threshold voltage value depends on the semiconductor material used in the diode construction i.e. for silicon it's +0.7V and for Germanium, it's +0.3V.
• So, for a normal diode, if we provide an external power of +0.7V, the electrons will overcome the depletion region and in simple words, the current will start flowing through the diode.
• As you can see in the below figure, the positive terminal of the battery is connected with the anode of the diode and as we will provide a voltage greater than its threshold voltage, the diode will start conducting and is said to be acting as forward biased.
• In forward biasing conditions, an ideal diode has zero resistance, but as I told you earlier, an ideal condition does not exist.

Diode as Reverse Biased

• If the polarity of the applied power is reversed i.e. positive terminal of the battery gets connected with the cathode(-), while the negative terminal gets connected with the anode(+), the depletion region will start to increase.
• In this state, the diode won't allow the current to flow through it and is said to be acting as reverse biased.
• In a reverse Biased state, the diode acts as an open switch.
• The PN junction in reverse biasing offers a very high resistance due to the thickness of the depletion region.
• A diode in ideal condition when reverse biased has infinite resistance.

History of Diode

• Introduced in 1906, the first semiconductor diode was named as Cat's Whisker Diode that was fabricated using mineral crystals.
• Mostly, diodes are designed using silicon because it can handle high temperature, however, germanium is also used when low voltage drop is required.

• When there is no applied voltage across the diode terminals, the diode will not conduct and very thin depletion region exists with no charge carriers around the pn junction of the diode.
• The diode will only conduct when applied voltage at the forward biased condition is greater than the diode built-in potential and it allows the flow of electrons from the cathode to the anode.
• Don't get confused with the arrow sign of the diode pointing from the anode to the cathode. It shows the conventional current flowing from anode to cathode. Conduction will be carried out from cathode to anode when a certain voltage above built-in potential is applied.

 

• A diode will stop conducting when the applied voltage is reverse biased and allows the depletion region to expand, blocking the flow of current. However, when a reverse biased voltage is too large, it allows the small current to flow which is called leakage current. It is too small that most of the time it is ignored while considering the current ratings.
• Similarly, when the reverse biased voltage is too large, it allows the depletion region to expand too much till it collapses, reaching a condition called breakdown, which appears to be very harmful for the quality and operation of the device.
• When we check the value of resistance by multimeter, it shows the low value at one terminal and high value at other terminal which indicates diode is working. It doesn't indicate the actual value of the resistance, instead, it shows the voltage drop across the pn junction.
• For silicon diodes, the forward voltage drop is 0.7 V, which is the voltage required to overcome built-in voltage in order to start the flow of current from cathode to the anode. Similarly, forward voltage drop for germanium is 0.3 voltage which makes it an ideal choice for the applications where low voltage drop is required.
• The voltage drop is highly dependent on the current flowing through the diode, however, it remains constant over a wide range of currents.

Junction Diodes

Diodes are divided into two types based on the formation of the junction between the terminals.

p-n junction Diode

• A pn junction diode is made from semiconductors like silicon or germanium where an N-type region is created with the help of negative charge carriers called n-type semiconductor while the P-type region is created with the addition of positive charge carriers called p-type semiconductors.
• Initially, there is no flow of current between two regions until they are joined together, resulting in a formation of pn junction where movement of electrons starts from N-type semiconductor to P-type semiconductor.

• There exists a region around pn junction where there are no charge carriers called depletion region. When depletion is very thin, indicates a conduction from N-type region to P-type region. When deletion region is very large, indicates no or little flow of current between two regions.
• The diode action takes place around the pn junction. When forward voltage potential more than built-in potential is applied between the diode terminals, it allows the flow of electrons from N-type region to P-type region, while blocking the flow of electrons in reverse order.
• Foward biased mode means the flow of electrons from N type to P type region. Reverse biased mode means no flow of electrons, blocking the current in other direction.

Schottky Diode

• Schottky diode is another type of junction diode where the junction is formed using metal-semiconductor instead of using p-n junction. It is an ideal choice for the applications where high switching speed is required.

Current-Voltage Characteristics

The voltage in V-I curve shows the voltage applied across the diode terminals and current shows the corresponding current obtained as the result of the applied voltage. Based on needs and requirements, the V-I characteristics of the diode can be customized using the suitable semiconductor material and doping concentration of impurities during the manufacturing of the device.

• The depletion region housed between the pn junction shows how the movement of electrons between the two N-type and P-type regions takes place.
• When pn junction is formed, the electrons from N-type region transfers to the P-type region, where they join the holes present in the P-type region.
• When electron combines the hole, the resulting pair disappears and the region around pn junction gets depleted with no charge carriers present. Resulting depletion region around the pn junction acts as an insulator.
• It is important to note, the width of depletion region cannot exceed without limit. When an electron-hole pair is created, it results in the formation of positively charged ion in the N-type region and negatively charged acceptor ion in the P-type region.
• As the formation of electron-hole pair proceeds, it results in the creation of built-in potential where increasing electric field developed around the depletion region, stops the further formation of an electron-hole pair.

Foward Biased Mode

• When the external voltage applied between the diode terminals comes with opposite polarity as the built-in potential, it starts the current flow where depletion region acts as a conductor. In this case, the depletion region formed around the pn junction will be very thin.
• The built-in potential is different for different diodes i.e. 0.7 for silicon and 0.3 for germanium.
• If the external voltage of opposite polarity with more than 0.7 V is applied between the diode terminals in case of a silicon diode, it allows the current to flow from anode to cathode. The diode is considered as "turned on" in this case.
• The voltage above which diode starts conducting through depletion region around the pn junction is called forward threshold voltage which is different than the built-in voltage.

Reverse Biased Mode

• When the external voltage applied between the diode terminals comes with the same polarity as built-in potential, it allows the depletion region to expand and stops the flow of current where depletion region acts as an insulator.

Types of Diodes

There are many types of diodes available in the market which are mainly used for the customization of voltage or current. Most of the pn junction diodes are made from silicon and germanium. Before the inception of these power diodes, selenium was used to manufacture the diodes.

Selenium diodes come with low efficiency as compared to silicon diodes, because high forward voltage around 1.4 or 1.7 V is required to start conducting around the pn junction, resulting in the need of much larger heat sink. Following are the most commonly used diodes in the electronic devices.

LED Diodes

• These diodes are made from the crystalline substance that emits light in different colors like red blue green or orange, depending on the crystalline material used in the diode.
• These diodes emit incoherent, narrow-spectrum light, capable of producing wavelengths in the wide range.
• Most of the LED diodes are low-efficiency diodes, which make them an ideal choice for the signal applications. LED diodes are also used in the formation of opto-isolator.

Avalanche Diodes

• These diodes are very identical to Zener diodes, where they start conducting in the reverse direction when reverse bias voltage becomes greater than break down voltage. These diodes come with an ability to break down at a certain voltage, without destroying them completely.
• Both Zener and Avalanche diodes are quite similar with respect to their mode of operation with one practical difference i.e. both didoes exhibit temperature coefficient with opposite polarities.

Zener Diodes

• Zener diodes, also termed as reverse breakdown diodes, are the diodes that conduct in reverse bias condition.
• Zener breakdown effect occurs at a very specific voltage, making them suitable for use as a precision reference voltage.
• In reference circuits, temperature coefficient balancing can be achieved by using a combination of zener diodes and switching diodes.
• Both avalanche and zener diodes fall under the category of breakdown diodes and electrically they response quite similar with one exception i.e. zener diodes operate with a breakdown voltage below 5 V, while avalanche diodes operate with a breakdown voltage above 5 V.

Crystal Diodes

• Crystal diode, also known as Cat's Whisker diode, is point contact diode which is not easily available in the market. This diode comes with a thin metal, known as an anode, and semiconductor crystal, known as a cathode.

Photodiodes

• Photodiodes are composed of semiconductor materials that are light sensitive, making them an ideal choice for solar cells and optical communications.
• These diodes are mostly available in single diode package, however, single dimensional or double dimensional array combination is also widely available.

Applications

Diodes allow the current to flow in one direction which makes them suitable for most of the applications where current controlling is prerequisite. Following are the major applications of the diodes.

ONE. Logic gates are designed using diodes with other electronic components.

TWO. Diodes are also used as a waveform clipper, where they clip the negative or positive peak of the signal in order to attain specific voltage.

THREE. Didoes are helpful for temperature measuring because the forward voltage drop across them is very sensitive to temperature. Most of the diodes come with negative temperature coefficient which remains constant above 20 Kelvin.

FOUR. Diodes are widely used for the demodulation of amplitude signal. The amplitude of AM signal is directly proportional to the original audio signal and comes with positive and negative peaks of the carrier wave. The diode is used to rectify the AM radio signal, resulting in only positive peaks of the carrier wave. A filter is applied in order to extract the audio signal from radio carrier wave, which then produces sound waves when applied to the amplifier.

FIVE. Rectifiers are made from diodes which widely replace the commutator for converting AC signal to DC signal.

SIX. Some electronic circuits are very sensitive and show high spikes in the voltage during the execution of the project. These diodes are used to prevent the circuits from high voltages spikes which appear to be very damaging, if not controlled properly, in the early stages.

That's all for today. I hope you have found this article useful. If you're unsure or have any question, you can approach me in the comment section below. I'd love to help you according to best of my expertise in any way I can. Feel free to keep us updated with your suggestions, they help us to provide you quality work that resonates with your needs and demands. Thanks for reading the article.

Introduction to 2n6491

Hello Friends! Hope you are doing great. We always come up with useful information that helps you solve your problems and keeps you updated with the knowledge that resonates with your needs and demands. Today, I am going to unlock the details on the Introduction to 2n6491. It is an NPN power transistor mainly used for general purpose amplification and switching purpose. It exhibits high DC current gain and comes with TO-220 package. I'll break down all information related to this transistor in easy steps, so you can grab the main concept easily. Let's dive in and explore what is this about and its main applications.

Introduction to 2n6491

• 2n6491 is an NPN (negative-positive-negative) bipolar junction transistor mainly used for general purpose amplification and switching purpose.
• It has three terminals used for external connection with the electronic circuits called emitter, base, and collector.
• All these three terminals are different in terms of their doping concentration. An emitter is highly doped as compared to base and collector.
• The base is lightly doped which is responsible to trigger the electron reaction in the transistor.
• The collector is moderately doped which is used to collect the electors from base terminals.
• When a voltage is applied at the base terminals, it gets triggered and starts the electron reaction.

• The base terminal then draws small current which is used to control large current at the collector and emitter side.
• This transistor is a current controlled device where small current at the base side is used to control the large current at the other terminals.
• The number of electrons from emitter side is diffused to the base side where they act as minority carriers. Holes behave as majority carriers at the base side.
• When electrons come from the emitter side, it will combine with the holes in the base terminal.
• However, a base cannot control all number collected from the emitter side, resulting to diffuse the remaining electrons to the collector side.
• Diode plays a vital role in the construction of this transistor. When two diodes are joined back to back, they constitute a transistor.

2n6491 Pinout

• The following figure shows the pinout of this NPN transistor. It consists of three terminals called emitter, base, collector.

• Free movement of electrons from a base to collector terminal occurs when a voltage is applied at the base terminal. Actually, movement of electrons is nothing but a bridge between emitter and collector.

Circuit Diagram of 2n6491

• Following figure shows the circuit diagram of this NPN transistor.

• The voltage at the base side is positive with respect to the emitter and current flows from the emitter to collector.
• The amount of current we get at the output side is highly dependent on the small current at the base side which is the result of the voltage applied at the base terminal.
• The emitter current is equal to the sum of base and collector current because doping concentration of emitter is more than base and collector, resulting in a more current present at the emitter terminal as compared to other terminals.
• Common emitter current gain is an important factor determining the characteristics of the transistor. It is the ability of current being amplified. It is called beta and denoted by ß which is a ratio between collector current and base current. Beta plays an important role in the amplification purpose and also known as an amplification factor.
• Similarly, the common-base current gain is another important factor which is obtained when base to collector voltage is constant. It is called alpha and denoted by a. It is a ratio between collector current and emitter current. The alpha value is always less than one and lies between 0.95 and 0.99. However, more often than not, alpha value is taken as unity.
• This NPN transistor contains electrons as majority charge carriers while PNP transistors contain holes as majority charge carriers.

Absolute Maximum Ratings

• Following figure shows the absolute maximum ratings of 2n6491.

• These are the stress ratings which, if exceed from the absolute maximum ratings, can damage the device at large.
• If these ratings are applied for the maximum period of time, they can affect the device reliability.
• We can see from the figure, collector-emitter voltage is 80 and collector-base voltage is 90.  And maximum power dissipation is 75 W.
• It is important to consider these absolute maximum ratings before you pick this transistor for your project. These ratings play a vital role in the execution and performance of the whole project.
• If ratings of this transistor don't match with your requirements, then you can try other transistors like 2n3903 that comes with different ratings.

Applications

• This transistor is mainly used for general purpose amplification.
• Fast switching applications involve this transistor.

That's all for today. You must have a look at MOSFET which is a unipolar voltage controlled device different than this NPN transistor which is a current controlled bipolar device. If you're unsure or have any question, you can ask me in the comment section below. I'd love to guide you according to best of my expertise in any way I can. Keep us updated with your valuable suggestions, they allow us to give you quality work that aligns with your needs and demands. Thanks for reading the article.

Introduction to BJT (Bipolar Junction Transistor)

Hey Guys! Hope you are doing great. Today, I am going to discuss the details on the Introduction to BJT (Bipolar Junction Transistor). It is an electronic component mainly used for amplification and switching purpose. As the name suggests, it is composed of two junctions called emitter-base junction and collector-base junction. Don't confuse BJT with regular transistors. A transistor is a semiconductor device, comes with three terminals that are used for external connection with electronic circuits. A transistor is termed as a trans resistor which is used as switch or gate for electronic signals. Small signals applied between one pair of its terminals are used to control much larger signals at the other pair of terminals. Actually, transistors are divided into two categories called unipolar transistor and a bipolar transistor. Bipolar junction transistor uses two charge carries i.e. electrons and holes while unipolar transistor like FETs (Field Effect Transistors) uses only one charge carrier. I hope you are aware of another type of transistors called MOSFET. I'll try to cover each and everything related to this bipolar junction transistor, so you find all information at one place. Let's get started.

Introduction to BJT

• Introduced in 1948 by Shockley, BJT is an electronic component mainly used for switching and amplification purpose.
• It is composed of three terminals called emitter, base, and collector, denoted as E, B and C respectively.
• This transistor comes with two PN junctions. The PN junction exists between emitter and base is called emitter-base junction and the PN junction exists between collector and base is called collector-base junction. Emitter-base junction is forward biased and the collector-base junction is reverse biased.
• In the start BJTs were made from germanium, however, recent transistors are made from silicon.
• BJT comes in two types called NPN transistor and PNP transistor.
• It is a bipolar device where conduction is carried out by both charge carriers i.e. electrons and holes. The number of electrons diffused in the base region is more the number of holes diffused in emitter region. Electrons behave as a minority carrier in the base region.
• Under normal conditions, when the emitter-base junction is forward biased it allows the current to flow from emitter to collector. When a voltage is applied at the base terminal, it gets biased and draws current, which directly affects the current at the other terminals.
• BJT is called a current controlled device where small current at the base side is used to control the large current at other terminals. All three terminals of the BJT are different in terms of their doping concentrations. The emitter is highly doped as compared to base and collector.

• The collector is moderately doped and its area is larger as compared to emitter area, allowing it to handle more power.
• When a voltage is applied, the majority of electrons from emitter are diffused into the base where these electrons act as minority charge carriers, making the holes in the base region majority charge carriers.
• As the base is very thin and lightly doped it cannot hold the number of electrons for too much time, allowing the electrons to diffuse from base to collector.
• Making a slight change at the voltage applied at the base-emitter terminals can cause a significant change at the current between emitter and collector terminals.
• This is the process used for amplification purpose.
• When the emitter-base junction is not forward biased the amount of current at the base and collector terminal is zero, no matter how much voltage is applied at the base terminal.
• Common-Emitter current gain is a term mostly used for BJTs. It is a ratio between collector current and base current. Similarly, a common-base current gain is defined as a ratio between collector current and emitter current. Most of the time its value is taken as unity.
• Construction of BJT is not symmetrical in nature. The lack of symmetry of BJTs is due to the difference in doping concentration between the terminals.
• Generally, BJTs are operated in forward-biased mode. Interchanging the emitter and collector allows the forward biased mode to change to reverse biased mode. This interchange causes a wide impact on the values of current gains, making them much smaller as they are in forward-biased mode.
• The mode of operation where an emitter-base junction is forward biased and the collector-base junction is reverse biased is called active region.

Types of BJT

BJTs are divided into two types based on the nature and construction of the transistor. Following are two main types of the BJT.

NPN

• NPN (negative-positive-negative) is a type of BJT where a P-doped layer of semiconductor exists between the two layers of N doped material.
• The P doped region represents the base of the transistors while other two layers represent emitter and collector respectively.
• NPN transistors are also called minority carrier devices because minority charge carriers at the base side are used to control large current at other terminals of the transistor.
• The current moves from an emitter to the collector where electrons act as a minority carrier at the base side.

PNP

• PNP (positive-negative-positive) transistor is a type of BJT where N doped semiconductor layer which acts as a base, is housed between the two layers of P doped material.
• The base uses small base current and negative base voltage to control large current at the emitter and collector side and voltage at the collector side is larger than the voltage at the base side.
• In PNP transistor current direction and voltage polarities are reversed as compared to NPN transistors.
• PNP transistors work in a similar way like NPN transistor with some exception i.e. holes are diffused through the base from an emitter and are collected by the collector.
• This transistor is rarely used for applications as conduction carried out by the movement of electrons is considered fast and holds more value as conduction by movement of holes.

Regions of Operations of BJT

Bipolar junction transistors come with different regions of operation. These modes of operations set a tone for current flowing from emitter to collector.

Forward Active Mode

• BJT comes with two junctions called emitter-base junction and collector-base junction. Emitter-base junction is forward biased and the collector-base junction is reverse biased.
• For amplification purpose, most of the transistors come with high common emitter current gain which shows the exact current and power gain required for amplification purpose.
• The collector-emitter current is largely dependent on the base current where small current at the base side is used to control the large current at the emitter and collector side.

Reverse Active Mode

• By interchanging the emitter and collector, transistor goes from active mode to reverse active mode.
• Most of the transistors are designed to afford high current gain, but reversing the role of emitter and collector makes the current gain very small as compared to forward biased region. This type of mode is rarely used unless a failsafe condition is required.

Saturation

• BJT exhibits saturation mode when both junctions are forward biased. This mode of operation is referred as a closed circuit which allows a large amount of current flowing from emitter to collector side.

Cut-off

• When the emitter-base junction is not forward biased, the transistor is said to have in the cut-off region where collector current and base current will be zero, no matter how much voltage is applied at the base terminal.

Three Basic Configurations of BJT

BJT is a current controlled device which is mainly used for amplification and switching purpose. There are three ways to connect this device with external electronic circuits called: 1. Common Base Configuration 2. Common Collector Configuration 3. Common Emitter Configuration The nature of the current being controlled at the output is different for different configurations.

Common Base Configuration

• Common base configuration is a configuration where the common base is shared between input and output signal.
• Voltage is applied at the emitter-base junction and corresponding output signal is obtained at the output across the base-collector junction.
• The base voltage is connected to some reference voltage or can be grounded in some cases with the intention of making common base between input and output signals.
• Following figure shows the circuit diagram of common base configuration.

• Current at the emitter side is quite large, where electrons are diffused into the base terminal. These electrons make a pair with some holes present in the base, while most of them leave the base and are collected by the collector.
• This type of transistor comes with remarkable high voltage characteristics which don't make it an ideal choice for many applications. In this configuration, an output and input voltage is in line with each other. The input characteristics of this transistor are quite identical to forward biased diode while output characteristics are similar to a regular diode and come with a high output to input resistance ratio.
• Common base current gain is a very important factor used in this configuration which is a ratio between collector current and emitter current. It is denoted by a alpha.
• a = Ic/Ie
• The alpha value ranges between 0.95 to 0.99, however, most of the time its value is taken as unity. High-frequency response of common base configuration makes it an ideal choice for single stage amplifier.

Common Collector Configuration

• This configuration is also known as voltage follower where the input is applied at the base terminal and output is taken from emitter terminal.
• This configuration is mainly used for impedance matching as the input impedance of this configuration is very high while output impedance is very low.
• Common collector configuration is termed as non-inverting amplifier where output signal and an input signal are in phase with each other.
• The current gain of this transistor is very large because the load resistance is at the receiving end of both collector current and base current, making it a suitable for amplification purpose.
• Hence very little voltage gain, around unity, can help in producing very large current gain.
• Following figure shows the circuit diagram of common collector configuration.

Common Emitter Configuration

• This configuration is widely used in transistor based amplifier, where an input signal is applied between emitter and base while the output is taken from emitter and collector.
• This configuration comes with highest current and power gain which makes it an ideal choice for amplification. Input impedance is connected to forward biased PN junction which shows low value while output impedance is connected to reverse biased PN junction which shows high value.
• Most of the transistors generally come with common emitter configuration because this exhibits the ideal power and current required for amplification purpose.
• Common emitter configuration is termed as inverting amplifier circuit where an input signal is out-of-phase with the output signal.
• Following figure shows the circuit diagram of common emitter configuration.

 

• The common emitter current gain of this transistor is very large as compared to a current gain of common base configuration which is a ratio between collector current and base current. It is denoted by ß beta which is the measure of current being amplified.
• ß = Ic/Ib
• Output current at the collector and emitter side is highly dependent on the current at the base side.
• Current at the emitter side is the sum of current at the base and collector side because emitter side is highly doped as compared to base and collector.
• Ie = Ib + Ic
• When the voltage is applied at the base terminal it triggers the electrons reaction which forces the electrons to move towards the collector side.
• Any small change at the voltage applied at the base terminal results in a very large change at the current obtained at the collector side.

Pros of BJTs

• Bipolar junction transistor comes with a large amplification factor.
• This type of transistor provides a better voltage gain.
• This transistor comes with a capability of operating in four regions i.e active region, reverse mode, saturation and cut-off region.
• BJT provides a better responese at higer frequiencies.
• BJTs also act as a switch.

Cons of BJTs

• BJT is very sensitive to heat and produces noise is some cases.
• The switching power of BJTs is very low as compared to unipolar transistors like FETs.

Applications

• BJTs come with two major applications called amplification and switching.
• They are the building blocks of most of the electronic circuits, especially where audio, current or voltage amplification is required.
• NPN transistors are preferred over PNP transistors for amplification purpose because conduction carried out through mobility of electrons is better than conduction through mobility of holes.

That's all for today. I have tried my best to break down each and everything related to BJTs so you can digest the main concept easily. In case you are unsure or have any question you can ask me in the comment section below. I'd love to help you according to best of my expertise. Feel free to keep us updated with your valuable suggestions, they allow us to give you quality work. Thanks for reading the article.

Introduction to 2n6547

Hey Fellas! Hope you are doing great and having fun in your lives. We always try to keep you updated with useful information that resonates with your needs and expectations so you can grow and excel in your relevant field. I am back to give you a daily dose of useful information that may help you resolve your queries and problems related to engineering and technology field. Today, I am going to unlock the details on the Introduction to 2n6547. It is an NPN bipolar junction transistor that comes with high voltage and current capability and fast switching speed, mainly used in switched mode power supplies and flyback and forward single transistor low power converters. I'll try to cover each and everything related to this NPN transistor, so you don't need to go anywhere and find all information in one place. Let's dive in and explore what is this about and what are its main applications?

Introduction to 2n6547

• 2n6547 is an NPN bipolar junction transistor that comes with high voltage and current capability and fast switching speed, mainly used in switched mode power supplies and flyback and forward single transistor low power converters.
• It comes in a TO-3 metal case and is an ideal choice for industrial and switching applications from single and three-phase mains.
• This NPN transistor is a bipolar junction transistor where conduction is carried out by the movement of both charge carriers, i.e electrons, and holes, however, main charge carriers are electrons.
• It mainly consists of three terminals called emitter, base, and collector.

• All three terminals are different in terms of size and doping concentration. An emitter is highly doped as compared to base and collector while a base is lightly doped.
• When a voltage is applied at the base terminals, it triggers the electron reaction which draws current.
• Small base current is used to control large current at the emitter and collector side.
• Electrons play an important role in maintaining the bridge between emitter and collector of this transistor.

2n6547 Pinout

Following figure shows the pinout of 2n6547

• This transistor is basically a current operated device where small current at the base side is used to control the large current at the emitter and collector side.
• The ability of base current to control large currents is used for amplification purpose.
• This transistor is a bipolar current controlled device which is different than JFET that is a unipolar voltage controlled device.

Circuit Symbol of 2n6547

Following figure shows the circuit symbol of 2n6547.

• The base of the transistor is more positive than the emitter while the voltage at the collector side is more than base voltage.
• Current at the emitter side is equal to the sum of current at the base and collector side.
• As it is an NPN transistor, it sources the base current to the transistor.
• The measure of a number of electrons that pass from base to collector is called transistor efficiency.
• The base is lightly doped and the emitter is heavily doped that will allow the electron to move from the emitter to base more than it will allow the holes from base to emitter.
• Transistors always operate in forward biased mode. If we interchange emitter and collector and makes it reverse biased, then the value of alpha and beta will be much lesser than they will be in forward biased mode.
• Forward current gain is represented by beta ß, which is an important factor for amplification purpose. It is a ratio between collector current and base current and its value ranges between 20 to 1000, however, its standard value is 200.
• Current gain is another important factor which is a ratio between collector current to the emitter current and it is denoted by alpha a. Value of alpha ranges between 0.95 to 0.99, however, most of the times alpha value is considered as a unity.

Absolute Maximum Ratings of 2n6547

Following figure shows the absolute maximum ratings of 2n6547.

• It is important to note that these are the stress ratings. If these stress ratings are exceeded above absolute maximum ratings, they can damage the device at large and affect the quality of the component.
• If these stresses are applied for a maximum period of time, they can affect the reliability of the component.
• Take strict measures and follow international protocols while dealing with this components, otherwise, they can affect the project you are picking this component for.

Applications

• It is mainly used in switched mode power supplies.
• Flyback and forward single transistor low power converters make use of this device as it exhibits high voltage and current capability.
• This transistor is an ideal choice for switch mode applications ranges between 115 to 220 V.
• Inductive circuits where fall time plays an important role, are equipped with this transistor.
• For industrial purpose, it is used for motor drive control.

That's all for today. This transistor comes with electrons as majority carriers, different than PNP transistor that comes with holes as majority carriers. I hope you have found this article useful. However, if still you feel skeptical or have any question, you can ask me in the comment section below. I'd love to help you according to best of my expertise. Keep up updated with your valuable feedback and suggestions, as they allow us to give you quality work that meets your requirements. Thanks for reading the article. Stay Tuned!

Introduction to 2n4400

Hey Fellas! I hope you are doing great and having fun. We love when you keep coming back again and again for what we have to offer that resonates with your needs and requirements. I am back to give you a daily dose of useful information so you can excel and grow in your relevant field without much effort. Today, I am going to unlock the details on the Introduction to 2n4400. It is an NPN (negative-positive-negative) bipolar transistor which is mainly designed for general purpose amplification and switching applications. I'll cover each and everything related to this transistor, so you get all information in one place without roaming around on the internet. Let's get started.

Introduction to 2n4400

• 2n4400 is an NPN general purpose bipolar junction transistor which is mainly used for amplification and switching applications.
• It is mainly composed of three terminals called emitter, base, and collector, where small current at the base side is used to control large current at the emitter and collector side.
• This NPN transistor consists of two N doped layers which cover the one P doped layer. The P terminal shows the base of the transistor while other two terminals show collector and emitter respectively.

• Most of the old transistors were made of germanium. However, new transistors are made from silicon.
• When a voltage is applied at the base terminal, it triggers electron reaction, gets biased, draws current which is then used to control large current at the collector and emitter side.
• All three terminals are different in terms of size and doping concentration. An emitter is highly doped as compared to collector and base while a base is lightly doped. However, a voltage at the collector side is more than the voltage at the base side.
• Actually, movement of electrons acts like a bridge between emitter and collector.
• 2n4400 is also referred as bipolar junction transistor where conduction is carried out by the movement of electrons and holes, however, majority charge carriers are electrons.
• You must look at the introduction to diode which plays a vital role in the construction of transistor.

2n4400 Pinout

Pinout of the 2n4400 is shown in the figure below.

• The base controls the number of electrons and draws current which is then used to control large current at the other terminals. This process is used for amplification purpose.

Circuit Diagram of 2n4400

Following figure shows the circuit diagram of the 2n4400.

• Emitter current is equal to the sum of base and collector current because doping concentration of emitter is more than both collector and base.
• This transistor can be configured into three configurations called common base configuration, common collector configuration, and common emitter configuration. Common emitter configuration is mostly used for the amplification purpose because it provides the required power and voltage for the amplification purpose.
• Forward current gain is an important feature in this NPN transistor, which is also called amplification factor that defines the measure of current being amplified. It is called beta ß, and it is a ratio between collector current and base current. Beta value is a ratio between two currents so it exhibits no unit.
• Beta value ranges between 20 to 1000. However, standard value of beta is 200.
• Current gain is another important factor which is called alpha a and it is a ratio between collector current and emitter current. Alpha value ranges between 0.95 to 0.99. However, most of the time alpha value is taken as unity.
• Transistors always operate in forward biased mode. If we interchange emitter and collector and makes it reverse biased, then the value of alpha and beta will be much lesser than they will be in forward biased mode.
• In the ON state current will flow from emitter to collector and free movement of electrons from the base side is used to control the current between emitter and collector.

Absolute Maximum Ratings

Following figure shows the absolute maximum ratings of 2n4400

• It is important to note that, these are the stress ratings, which if exceed from the absolute maximum ratings, can damage the device quality and overall functionality of the device.
• It is recommended to apply these stress ratings for the specific period of time given by the manufacturer. If these ratings are applied for a maximum period of time they can affect the device reliability.

Applications

• This NPN transistor is widely used for general purpose amplification and switching purpose.

That's all for today. I have tried my best to cover each and everything related to this amplification transistor. However, if still you feel skeptical or have any question you can ask me in the comment section below. I'd love to help you based on my best of my knowledge and expertise. I'd suggest you have a look at PNP transistor where holes are majority carriers, different than NPN transistor where electrons are majority carriers. Feel free to provide us your valuable feedback and suggestions, they allow us to give you quality work that matches with your relevant field and helps you resolve your queries. Thanks for reading the article. Stay Tuned!

Introduction to 1n751a

Hey Friends! We welcome you on board. I am back to give you daily dose of information. Electronic components play an important role in the designing and working of electronic projects. Today, I am going to unlock the details on the Introduction to 1n751a. It is a zener diode, also known as highly reliable voltage regulator, which is mainly used in industrial, commercial, entertainment and computer applications. It is slightly different than regular diode, as regular diode conducts in only one direction while zener diode can conduct in both directions. I will discuss every aspect related to this zener diode, so you don't need to go anywhere and find all information in one place. Let's dive in and explore, what is it about and what are its main applications?

Introduction to 1n751a

• 1n751a is a zener diode which is also referred as highly reliable voltage regulator, mainly used in industrial, commercial, entertainment and computer applications.
• It comes with a very sharp reverse characteristics, which makes it an ideal choice for voltage stabilization applications.
• This zener diode is a p-n junction diode which is capable of conducting in both directions i.e. forward direction and reverse direction.
• However, making it operate in reverse biased condition is little bit tricky because reverse breakdown voltage must be achieved in order to operate it in reverse biased condition.

• One important feature that makes this zener diode ahead of regular diode is that voltage drop across the zener diode doesn't change over a wide range of voltages, which makes it suitable and highly effective for voltage regulation applications.
• This zener diode works in breakdown voltage and is an ideal choice for generating reference voltage.
• Most of the electronic circuits are equipped with this zener diode because it prevents them from over voltage.
• This zener diode comes with 1.5 forward voltage at 200mA and votlage tolerance appears to be 5%. And reverse leakage current is 1 µA at 1 V.
• It features very effective working characteristic and comes with a power of 500 mW.

Working of 1n751a

• Working of this zener diode is quite identical to normal diode with one exception - it conducts in both directions.
• This zener diode acts like a normal diode in forward biased condition.
• It will only allow the conduction in the reverse direction when reverse voltage reaches to the breakdown voltage, allowing the current to flow from cathode to anode.
• Over a wide range of applied voltage, current reaches to maximum point and stabilizes itself after a certain amount of time, making it suitable for using as a voltage stabilizer.

• Zener breakdown effect is the main cause of voltage breakdown. However, it can also occur due to impact ionization. Both mechanism come into play at 5.5 V and come with same feature and don’t need different circuitry for working efficiently. However, temperature coefficient is the main feature where both mechanism differ. Zener effect shows negative temperature coefficient while impact ionization shows positive temperature coefficient. Both effects cancel each other at 5.5 V, helps zener diode achieving the most stable state over a wide range of temperatures.

Applications

This zener diode comes with a lot of applications and used in electronic circuits in different forms ranging from voltage regulator to waveform clipper to voltage shiftier. However, mainly it is used for voltage regulator. Let's discuss, how it is used in different form in electronic circuits.

1. Voltage Regulator

• When zener diode is connected in parallel with the voltage using reverse biased mode, it will be capable of starting conduction when voltage equals to a breakdown voltage.

• You can see from the figure above that source voltage is applied in parallel with the diode that helps in decreasing the output voltage from its input, keeping the breakdown voltage constant over a wide range of source voltage.
• Constant breakdown voltage takes a vital part in maintaining the stable output voltage, making it unable for input voltage to effect the output voltage.

2. Waveform Clipper

• Zener diode shows a different behavior when it is connected in series.
• It acts as a waveform clipper when connected in series, allowing the waveform to clip from both ends of the cycle i.e. positive end and negative end of the cycle.

• High voltage spikes that can occur at the end of output voltage can also be prevented with the use of zener diode, helping in reshaping the output signal.

3. Voltage Shifter

• Voltage shifting is another feature in which zener diode is good at.
• When it acts as a voltage shifter, it reduces the amount of output voltage equal to the breakdown voltage.

That's all for today. I hope you have enjoyed the article. However, if still you feel skeptical or have any question, you can approach me in the comment section below. I'd love to help you based on best of my knowledge and expertise. Feel free to keep us updated with your suggestions, as they allow us to give you quality work that resonates with your needs and expectations. Thanks for reading the article. Stay Tuned!