The Engineering Projects

Introduction to RS 232

Hello Friends! Hope you are doing well. I am back to give you a daily dose of valuable information. Today, I'll discuss the detailed Introduction to RS 232 which is a standard communication protocol mainly used for serial communication between two devices. It was first introduced by the EIA (Electronic Industries Association) in 1960 to provide a pathway for connecting one device with other peripheral devices for flawless digital communication. It is true, that the inception of USB has grossly reduced the need for RS232 protocol, still, we can't brush off its significant importance in some industrial applications where Programmable Logic Controllers and Computerized Numerical Control Equipment are specifically programmed using RS 232 connectors which is nothing but an interface between DTE (Data terminal equipment) and (Data communication equipment). Don't worry about these abbreviations, I'll come to them later. In this post, I'll walk you through the basic concept of RS 232, why it is used and what are its main advantages and limitations. Let's dive in and explore the main features of the RS 232 protocol.

Introduction to RS232

RS 232, recently known as TIA 232, is a recommended standard protocol for serial data transmission between the electronic devices. It mainly works on three line signals: a transmission line, receive line and ground.

• The transmission line is mainly used to send the data serially from one end and receive line accepts the data from the other end while the common ground is used for devices.

Initially, it was very difficult to devise the clear protocol to send the data from one end to another. This led to the inception of the RS 232 protocol, revitalizing the communication industry with the main purpose to keep both ends of the connecting device under the same roof where they can accept, understand and communicate in the same language. The RS 232 is mainly categorized into two systems: DTE and DCE. DTE is a data terminal equipment such as a computer that handles the communication with some control functions and plays the main part of the station. Similarly, DCE is a data circuit-terminal equipment that is placed on the other end of the station and understands data being communicated from the DCE equipment. The DCE system incorporates male DB connectors while the DCE system comes with female DB connectors.

• RS232 data is bi-polar in nature, indicating an "ON or 0-state (SPACE) condition" if a voltage is around 3 to 12 V and features an "OFF" or 1-state (MARK) condition if voltage ranges from -3 to -12 V.

It is important to note that, most of the companies have reshaped the internal structure of the recent computers where they still indicate an OFF state at the zero voltage level, all the while ignoring the negative voltage. Similarly, the "ON" state is not necessarily dependent on the highest voltage level and can be achieved with much less voltage around 5V. Serial communication is mainly based on logical terms and RS232 transfers one bit at a time in the stream of ones and zeros which at the other end eventually get converted back to bits. There are eight bits in one byte.

• The duration at which the required signal stays in the particular state is dependent on the baud rate. The communication carried out in a RS 232 protocol is measured in baud - A number of bits transferred per second i.e. 1000 baud indicate 1000 bits per second.

There are other parameters that must be set up before the data transmission: Length of the byte, Parity and magnitude of stop bits. This length of the signal can be reserved anywhere from 5 to 8 bits. The second parameter is important. Partiy mainly comes with five options

• Even
• Odd
• Mark
• Space
• None

Even parity indicates the last data bit transmitted will be a logical 1 if it contains an even number of 0 bits. Similarly, Odd parity will be showing that the transmitted data is termed as logical 1 if it comes with an odd number of 0 bits. And MARK and SPACE parity will be representing that the last transmitted data bit will be logical 1 and 0 respectively. The last parameter is a number of stop bits and its value is set as 1 or 2. Transmission Capability RS-232 can perform transmission at data rates up to 20 Kbps with distance range capability around 50 ft. It all depends on the capacitance of the cable. The low capacity cables can transfer data up to 1000 ft while cables with high capacitance can transfer data at the lower distance.

• As mentioned earlier many computers don't come with RS 232 port anymore, therefore we need to add USB-to RS 232 converter externally in order to make them compatible with RS 232 peripheral devices.

Although excessive use of RS 232 becomes obsolete, they are still used in low speed wired data connection and point-to-point networking equipment with short range capabilities.

Communication Process

The communication is simply based on the transmission and receive protocol and a total of 9 pins are involved in carrying out the complete transmission. The following figure shows how the data is transmitted over the terminal. Mainly the communication is laid out between DTE and DCE terminals over the mutual agreement for required data transfer. The RTS pin shows the desire to send data to another terminal. As it turns ON, it indicates the DTE terminal is ready to transfer the data. The data will be transmitted gradually over the line without any resistance if CTS pin from the other is activated and grants permission to DTE for data transfer.

• The CD pin represents the current status of the RTS pin. If CD pin remains turned OFF, it will show the DTE terminal is not ready to send data over the channel. Similarly, turning it ON will be showing the DTW desires to send data and looking for permission from the other end.

Once the permission is granted, two other pins RD and TD come into play where former is used to receive data from DCE terminal and later is used for transferring data from DTE to DCE terminal.

• The DTR pin must be turned ON before both terminals are ready to communicate with each other. Actually, DTR (Data Terminal Ready) will be indicating that entire arrangement from both terminals is adequate and matches with the required protocol for data transfer. It serves as a go-ahead signal for the communication.

Connector Pinout

Following figure shows the configuration of DB 25 connector. Following figure shows the pin configuration of the DB-9 connector.

• DB-9 and DB-25 connectors offer the outstanding quality and reliability for a number of serial and parallel (IEEE 1284) applications.

Types of Serial Communication

There are two main types of serial communication. Half Duplex Full Duplex Half Duplex, as the name suggests, transfers the information in one direction only. It comes with two lines where one is a data line and other is signal ground. In this communication, the terminal is capable to send or receive data, but not at the same time. This method is an old one and is not under practice anymore. Full Duplex communication can transmit and receive data in both directions, requiring three main lines: data transmit line, data receive line and signal ground.

Applications

Before USB came into play, RS-232 ports were the part and parcel for data communication between a computer and other peripheral devices. Still, they are successful in grooving their way in many science and technology applications. Let's have a look.

• In the absence of any network connection, RS232 ports are used to communicate in headless systems.

These ports play a vital role in establishing communication between the computer and embedded systems. Some Programmable Logic Controllers cannot be programmed without RS232 protocol.

• Many Computerized Numerical Control Systems are equipped with RS232 port.

Apart from DB9 and DB25 ports, sometimes the two-wire interface is enough when the transmission of data is carried out in one direction only. Some GPS receiver and Digital Postal Scale work on this principle.

• Similarly, two more lines RTS and CTS are included in a 5-wire version as per the technical needs where two-way data transmission layered with hardware flow control is required.

That's all for today. I hope you have got valuable information out of this read. If you are unsure or have any question, you can approach me in the comment section below. I'll try and help you the best way I can. You are most welcome to keep us updated with your feedback and suggestions, they help us provide you quality work as per your needs and requirements Thanks for reading the article.

Introduction to CD4047

Hi Guys! Hope you are doing well. In this platform, we always strive to keep updated with valuable information related to engineering and technology. Today, I'll discuss the detailed Introduction to CD4047. It is a CMOS Low Power monostable/astable multivibrator mainly used for converting DC current signal to AC signal. This inverter proves to be very handy in some countries where load-shedding creates a significant problem as it comes with an ability to store electrical energy and discharge it in the absence of main electrical power. In this tutorial, I'll cover the entire details on this inverter, its main features, working, and applications. Let's dive in and explore everything you need to know about this inverter.

Introduction to CD4047

CD4047 is a CMOS Low Power monostable/astable multivibrator mainly used for converting DC current signal to AC signal. It comes with a high voltage rating around 20-V.

• CD4047 is a 14 pin IC that operates on a logic techniques with an ability to allow negative or positive edge-triggered monostable multivibrator action layered with retriggering and external counting options.

Accurate and complemented buffered output with low power consumption make this IC an ideal choice for Frequency Division and Time Delay applications. The internal power-on reset circuit is added on the IC and fast recovery time makes it an independent from the pulse width.

• There is a sheer difference involved when IC works in monostable and astable mode. In monostable mode, the inverter needs a trigger signal for generating the output pulse, but an astable multivibrator doesn't require trigger signal for every output pulse. More often than not, an astable multivibrator can be called as an oscillator.

CD4047 Features

No matter what type of operation this IC undergoes, an external resistor is permanently connected between RC-Common and R timing terminals and an external capacitor is connected between RC-Common and C timing terminals. The following figure shows the main features of this IC.

Features
Low Power Consumption Noise Resistance Generate both Monostable and Astable operation Symmetrical buffered output characteristics One resistor and one capacitor is used externally
Monostable Features
Output pulse width doesn't dependent on trigger pulse duration Pulse width expansion with retrigger option The positive and negative edge trigger option is available
Astable Features
Creates 50% duty cycle Free running operating modes Oscillator output Impressive frequency stability

CD4047 Pinout

Following figure shows the pinout diagram of CD4047.

• There are 14 pins available on the IC where Vss is a ground pin and Vdd is a voltage supply pin. There are six inputs including trigger', trigger, astable, astable', external reset and retrigger. While buffer outputs include three outputs mentioned as Q, Q', and Oscillator.

Both astable and astable' take part for triggering the operation by keeping high level on the former and low level on the later.

• The IC behaves as a gatable multivibrator if complement pulses on the astable' and true pulses are applied on the astable pins.

The CD4047 will be only triggering in a monostable state when a positive edge appears on the +trigger with -trigger keeping low.

CD4047 Pin Description

As mentioned earlier there are 14 pins on the IC interface with every pin is used with a specific purpose. Folloiwng table shows the pin description of each pin.

Pin#	Pin Name	Pin Description
1	C	Connected to an external capacitor
2	R	Connected to an external resistor
3	R-C Common	Common pin for establishing a connection with resistor and capacitor
4	Astable'	Must be kept low when used in astable mode
5	Astable	Must be kept high when used in astable mode
6	-Trigger	High to Low transition will be given to this pin when used in Monostable mode
7	Vss	Ground Pin
8	+Trigger	Low to high transition will be given to this pin when used in Monostable mode
9	EXT Reset	External reset triggers when a high pulse is provided to this pin, resetting the output Q to low and Q’ to high
10	Q	Generates high output
11	Q'	It is an inverse output of pin 10, producing a low output
12	Retrigger	This pin is used in Monostable mode for simultaneously retriggering +trigger and –trigger pin
13	Osc Out	Generate oscillated output
14	Vdd	Voltage supply pin

CD4047 Working in Monostable and Astable Mode

CD4047 is a low power inverter that comes with an ability to operate in both states: astable or monostable mode. In astable mode, it operates by charging a capacitor using a valuable resistor that is mainly used to adjust the output frequency near 50Hz. Monostable Mode In Monostable Mode, an external resistor must be connected between Pin 1 & 3 of the IC that helps in determining the output pulse width. We will be using +trigger and –trigger Pin in this mode. Both pins will generate the Monostable output when we provide High to Low transition at –trigger Pin and Low to High transition at +trigger Pin. The following formula is used to determine the frequency at Pin 10 & 11

f = 1 / 8.8 x R*C

Astable mode As mentioned earlier in astable mode, the inverter needs a trigger signal for generating the output pulse. The output frequency is determined when a single capacitor is connected between PIN 2 and 3. The IC will be operating is an Astable mode when we apply  HIGH on Pin 5 and LOW on Pin 4, generating the output toggling between HIGH and LOW. The oscillated output frequency on Pin 13 can be determined using the following formula

F = 1 / 4.4 x R*C

Similarly, the formula to find the time it takes to generate pulse will be given as:

t = 2.48 x R*C

Applications

This inverter comes with a wide range of applications that are mainly related to DC to AC conversion. Following are the main applications it can be used for.

• Frequency division
• Frequency multiplication
• Timing delay applications
• Timing circuits
• Frequency discriminators

That’s all for today. I hope this article has helped you got a complete overview of CD4047 and the main functions associated with it. If you are unsure or have any question, you can ask me in the comment section below. I’d love to assist you in any way I can. Feel free to give your feedback and suggestions that help us provide you quality work based on your needs and requirements. Thanks for reading the article.

Introduction to HC-SR04 (Ultrasonic Sensor)

Hi Friends! I hope you are doing well. Welcome you onboard. Today, I'll discuss the basic Introduction to HC-SR04 Ultrasonic Sensor. It is an ultrasonic sensor, also known as an ultrasonic transducer that is based on a transmitter and receiver and mainly used to determine the distance from the target object. The amount of time it takes to send and receive waves will determine how far the object is placed from the sensor. It mainly depends on the sound waves working on “non-contact” technology. The required distance of the target object is measured without any damage, giving you accurate and precise details. This sensor comes with a range between 2cm to 400cm and is used in a wide range of applications including speed and direction measurement, wireless charging, humidifiers, medical ultrasonography, sonar, burglar alarms, and non-destructive testing. In this post, I'll try to cover basic details related to HC-SR04, so you get an idea what is this about and how it can be used in the major applications as per your needs and requirements. Let's jump right in and get down to the details on this ultrasonic sensor.

Introduction to HC-SR04 ( Ultrasonic Sensor )

• HC-SR04 is an ultrasonic sensor mainly used to determine the distance of the target object.
• It measures accurate distance using a non-contact technology - A technology that involves no physical contact between sensor and object.
• Transmitter and receiver are two main parts of the sensor where former converts an electrical signal to ultrasonic waves while later converts that ultrasonic signals back to electrical signals.
• You can download HCSR04 Datasheet by clicking below button:

Download HC-SR04 Datasheet

• These ultrasonic waves are nothing but sound signals that can be measured and displayed at the receiving end.
• Following table shows the main features of this ultrasonic sensor.

 

Parameter	Value
Main Parts	Transmitter & Receiver
Technology Used	Non-Contact Technology
Operating Voltage	5 V
Operating Frequency	4 MHz
Detection Range	2cm to 400cm
Measuring Angle	30º
Resolution	3mm
Operating Current	<15mA
Sensor Dimensions	45mm x 20mm x 15mm

 

• It gives precise measurement details and comes with accuracy (resolution) around 3mm, terming there might be a slight difference in the calculated distance from the object and the actual distance.

HC-SR04 Pinout & Description

• HC-SR04 contain 4 pins in total.
• Following table shows the HC-SR04 Pinout  & Description:

 

No.	Pin Name	Pin Description
1	VCC	The power supply pin of the sensor that mainly operates at 5V DC.
2	Trig Pin	It plays a vital role to initialize measurement for sending ultrasonic waves. It should be kept high for 10us for triggering the measurement.
3	Echo Pin	This pin remains high for short period based on the time taken by the ultrasonic waves to bounce back to the receiving end.
4	Ground	This pin is connected to ground.

 

• I have labelled these HC-SR04 Pinout in below figure for better visualization:

How does it work?

The HC-SR04 Ultrasonic (US) sensor is an ultrasonic transducer that comes with 4 pin interface named as Vcc, Trigger, Echo, and Ground. It is very useful for accurate distance measurement of the target object and mainly works on the sound waves. As we connect the module to 5V and initialize the input pin, it starts transmitting the sound waves which then travel through the air and hit the required object. These waves hit and bounce back from the object and then collected by the receiver of the module. Distance is directly proportional to the time these waves require to come back at the receiving end. The more the time taken, more the distance will be. The waves will be generating if the Trig pin is kept High for 10 µs. These waves will travel at the speed of sound, creating 8 cycle sonic burst that will be collected in the Echo pin. The echo pin remains turned on for the time these waves take to travel and bounce back to the receiving end. This sensor is mainly incorporated with Arduino to measure the required distance. Following formula is used to calculate the distance of the object.

S = (V x t)/2

Where S is the required distance, V is the speed of sound and t is the time sound waves take to come back after hitting the object. We need to divide the value by 2 because time will be double as the waves travel and bounce back from the initial point. Dividing it by 2 will give the actual distance of the target object.

Using HC-SR04 with Arduino Module

In order to get the precise distance measurement, HC-SR04 is mostly used in combination with different Arduino Modules like Arduino Uno and Arduino Mega. You can connect Arduino with this sensor in the following way.

• First, you need to power up the sensor using 5V DC regulated input to the sensor. Connect the ground pin with the ground of the voltage source. You can also power the sensor module using the Arduino 5V pins as the current drawn by the sensor is less than 15mA, won't be affecting the current ratings of the Arduino Module.

After setting up the initial arrangement, connect both Trig and Echo pins to the I/O pins of the Arduino Board. As mentioned earlier, in order to initialize the measurement process, the Trig pin must be kept high for 10us in the start. The sensor module will start generating sound waves with the frequency around 40,000 Hz per second from the transmitter.

• As the waves bounce back, consequently, the Echo pin will turn on until the sounds waves are received by the receiver. This time will be calculated using Arduino Module.

This tutorial that will help you How to Interface Ultrasonic Sensor with Arduino Module You can also Interface Multiple Ultrasonic Sensors with Arduino Module

Applications

HC-SR04 comes with a wide range of applications mainly targeting distance and direction measurements. Following are the major applications it can be used for.

• Speed and direction measurement
• Wireless charging
• Humidifiers
• Medical ultrasonography
• Burglar alarms
• Embedded system
• Depth measurement
• Non-destructive testing

That's all for today. I hope I have given you everything you needed to know about this sensor. If you are unsure or have any question, you can approach me in the comment section below. I'd love to help you the best way I can. Feel free to keep us updated with your valuable feedback and suggestion, they help us stay above the curve and give you quality content as per your demands. Thanks for reading the article.

Introduction to LED (Light Emitting Diode)

Hi Friends! Hope you are doing well. I always feel pleasure to keep you updated with information related to engineering and technology. Today, I'll unlock the detailed Introduction to LED. The LED stands for Light-emitting diode. LED is a PN-junction diode mainly used as the source of light.

The LED has a leg over common orthodox incandescent light in terms of efficiency, low consumption power, compact size, longer range and an ability to retain the quality for a longer period of time. It comes with a wide variety of applications ranging from automotive headlamps, camera flashes, aviation lighting, traffic signal, and medical devices.

In this post, I'll try to cover each and everything related to LED, so you don't need to wrestle your mind browsing the whole internet and find all the information in one place. Let's dive in and get down to the detail of this little semiconductor component.

Introduction to LED (Light Emitting Diode)

LED is a PN-junction diode that is mainly used as a replacement for incandescent lights. It is based on the electroluminescence effect - A process where a diode converts electric current to light when electrons change their state inside the LED semiconductors.

The PN-junction is nothing but a combination of both N-type and P-type semiconductor materials. The material forming the junction diode is not identical to other mainstream didoes, as it comes with a transparent package, allowing the infrared and visible light to pass through the junction.

• The LED contains two terminals known as anode and cathode. The former contains a positive charge on it and comes with the longer lead as compared to others, and later contains a negative charge on it.

LED will be working under one condition: the anode terminal should be put at a higher potential than the cathode terminal as current flows from anode to cathode (positive to negative). LED won't conduct if the respective terminals are connected in reverse order.

• LEDs, also known as infrared-emitting diodes, are very helpful in a wide range of applications. The experts were always in a need of creating an alternative to regular bulbs that turned out to be expensive and less efficient. The first experiment on electroluminescence was conducted in 1907, followed by a number of experiments later on that resulted in the development of visible light.

The brightness of every LED depends on the current drawn by it - the most the current drawn the more brightness will be.

There is a threshold set for the current every LED can withstand, increasing it from the rated value will burn the LED.

In the start, LEDs came with Infrared low-intensity light that grooved their way in the remote control applications, mainly targeting consumer electronics. In that time, the Red light was mainly used in the LED, however, in 2002 the experts succeeded in adding the White light to the LED semiconductor.

• The LED underwent through a number of tests and experiments and evolved over the years, however, recent LEDs come with different wavelengths ranging from ultraviolet, visible, to infrared wavelengths, producing light with high brightness.

The efficiency by which the LED converts electricity into the light is remarkable which makes it an ideal choice in the computer chip technology, adding an extra layer of both efficiency and robustness.

Note: The LED is not symmetrical in nature, allowing current to flow in one direction only.

LED Working Principle

LED is mainly comprised of four parts known as die, substrate, phosphor, and lens. The die is a semiconductor material containing gallium nitride (GaN) that emits blue light when the electric current passes through it. In order to provide easy integration of LED, one or two dies are used in combination with the substrate, generating enough power to light up the LED.

• White light is mainly preferred over blue one in general lighting applications where the desired color is produced using phosphor.

The blue light, emitting from the die, will generate white light once it hits phosphor particles.

• It is important to note that the phosphor can be applied to die material both ways: directly or layered with the lens material that either extracts or directs the light and mainly comes with silicon or glass.

The LED, more often than not, generates monochromatic light ranging from red to blue and violet.

• Traditional LEDs are formed using inorganic semiconductor materials including aluminum, gallium, silicon, indium, and zinc that produce a different color based on the type of material used: aluminum gallium phosphide produces green color, while aluminum gallium nitride and aluminum gallium arsenide produce ultraviolet and red light respectively.

The LEDs are also rated with respect to the voltage required to turn them on where red LEDs come with a maximum voltage rating of around 2.2V, while blue LEDs and white LEDs come with a voltage rating of 3.4V and 3.6V respectively.

Temperature Limitations

The LED never fails to satisfy the power consumption needs of a regular user, however, the use of this tiny component in a high temperature and pressure environment can make it highly vulnerable. Taking this point into consideration, some LEDs incorporate a heat sink on their interface, which prevents them from overheating and makes them an appropriate pick in conditions where high temperature is a major concern.

• A very high temperature can make the heat sink stopped working and put your LED in a total stall. Before you aim to use LED for your relevant project, make sure the temperature ratings match and resonate with the LED you are using.

Types of LEDs

LEDs are available in a variety of types. Some are preferred over others based on the nature of their applications. Following are some main types of LEDs.

High Power LEDs

LEDs are known as High Power LEDs if their power rating is greater than or equal to 1 Watt. They are mainly used for generating the maximum brightness. The input power required for these LEDs is very high, making them prone to heat dissipation.

Heat sinks are required to keep these LEDs cool and impede them from burning. Flashlights, spotlights, and automobile headlamps are some major applications of High Power LEDs.

RGB LEDs

It is widely used in many computer applications and comes with the ability to generate three lights, as the name suggests, red, blue and green. The color of these lights is controlled by using PWM (pulse width modulation). Both the duty cycle of PWM and the frequency used for generating the signal per second, prove to be handy for controlling all three colors.

SMD LED

SMD LED stands for Surface Mount Device LED. It comes in a special package with the ability to be mounted on the PCB surface. It can be easily categorized based on the physical dimensions. It works both ways: separately or in combination with a compatible device.

Thru-Hole LED

Thru-hole LED comes with two terminals leads that are embedded into the holes of the printed circuit board. They are available in a variety of different packages and shapes. Most common colors they come with are white, red, blue and green.

Why LED?

It is arguably correct, LED consumes 75% less power than normal incandescent without failing to produce the brightness with equal intensity.

Yes, buying it may make your budget bleed in the start as it features more costly as compared to regular halogen light, but it proves to be economical in the long run due to its high quality, longer life span and less power consumption.

LED Applications

The compact size of the LED makes it stand to fit in hard-to-reach places including ceiling lighting, cove lighting, tray, and cabinet lighting.

• Thanks to the robust nature of LEDs - without them, Landscape lighting would never be so easy and created flawlessly as it has been right now. The LEDs play a vital role in generating and optimizing the light beam angle at the desired distance and their ability to disguise any shape as per the nature of the environment they are incorporating in, helps them serve a real purpose, adding curated light layered with beauty using a single source.

Some of the digital clocks are developed using the LED interface. And the 7-segment LED display is a widely used student project that incorporates the array of LEDs in an organized manner.

• They are profoundly used in automotive industries, LCD panels, fiber optics data transmission, and remote control devices. While pointing out the sheer advantages of LEDs, we can't write off their value in advertising. They are mainly used to captivate the visitors - when placed in the advertising banner and tree decorated with a number of infrared lights will help in getting the instant attention of the customers.

That’s all for today. I have given you everything you needed to know about LED. If you are unsure or have any questions, you can ask me in the comment section below. I’d love to help you the best way I can. You are most welcome to share your valuable feedback and suggestion, they help us provide you with quality work as per your needs and requirements so you keep coming back for what we have to offer. Thanks for reading the article.

Introduction to CR2032

Hey Guys! Hope you are doing well. Welcome you onboard. Today, I'll discuss the details on the Introduction to CR2032 Battery. It is known as a coin cell or button cell that comes in cylindrical form and is mainly used in pocket calculators, wrist watches, artificial cardiac pacemakers, hearing aids, and automobile key-less entry transmitters. Low self-discharge and an ability to retain a charge for a long time make this device a good pick for high power devices. More often than not, it is called a lithium energizer where high capacity is a major concern. It falls under the category of disposable primary cells, where common cathode material is a silver oxide, manganese dioxide, or carbon monofluoride and common anode materials are zinc or lithium. In this post, I'll try to cover each and everything related to CR2032, so you don't need to wrestle your mind browsing a whole internet and find all information in one place. Let's jump right in and get down to the major details on this tiny device.

Introduction to CR2032

• CR2032 is a coin cell battery, also known as lithium energizer, that is mainly used in high power devices such as hearing aids, glucose monitors and automobile keyless entry transmitters.
• It provides a long service life to the devices it is incorporated in, allowing them to cover it by making a solid cylindrical shape. It can withstand high temperatures ranging from -22 to 140 F and can hold a bunch of power, enough to retain the charge for almost full 8 years.
• High capacity makes it a good replacement for BR2032, 5004LC, DL2032, and ECR2032.
• It is advised to keep this device away from the hunting eyes of kids, as swallowing it may cause serious injury or death in some cases due to chemical burns.

• Battery compartments are mainly used to keep the device safe and away from the children. These compartments can be shaped using two methods: an external mechanical tool like a screwdriver or coin is needed to unlock the battery compartment or using spare hand by applying two independent movements of the securing mechanism. They are designed in a way that can house a variety of cells where capacities will vary by size.
• The point worth mentioning here is that these Coin Lithium Cells are not interchangeable, however, thickness and diameter can be modified based on the cell designation.

CR2032 Features

Following are the main features of CR2032.

Classification	Coin Cell Battery or Lithium Energizer
Product Name	CR2032
Output Voltage	3V
Chemical System	Lithium / Manganese Dioxide (Li/MnO2)
Capacity	235 mAh
Energy Density	198 milliwatt hr/g
Weight	3 gram
Lithium Content	0.109 grams
Self Discharge	1% / year
Type	Non-Rechargeable
Maximum Operating Temperature	70 °C
Minimum Operating Temperature	-30 °C

 

• Some cells made from different chemical compositions are mechanically interchangeable that can directly relate to the voltage stability and service cell life.
• Be careful while selecting the coin cell for a relevant device, wrong selection can severely affect the device performance, resulting in short life or hindrance in the operating process.

CR2032 Dimensions

The following figure shows the dimensions of CR2032.

• The dimensions are given in mm vs inches.
• These dimensions are specific to the CR2032 battery, however, these Coin Cells come in a variety of dimensions and are used as per technical needs and requirements.

CR2032 Applications

CR2032 are used in a wide range of applications and can easily adjust in the hard to reach places due to its smaller size. Following are the major applications of CR2032.

• Wrist-watches
• Toys and games
• Pocket calculators
• Heart-rate monitors
• Artificial cardiac pacemakers
• Glucose monitors
• Implantable cardiac defibrillators
• Hearing aids
• Keyless entry transmitters

That's all for today. I hope I have given you everything you needed to known about CR2032 battery. If you are unsure or have any question, you can comment me in the section below. I'll try and help you according to the best of my knowledge. You are most welcome to feed us with your valuable feedback and suggestions, they keep you in a constant loop and help us provide you quality work as per your demands. Thanks for reading the article.

Introduction to IRF3205

Hi Fellas! I am back to give you a daily dose of valuable information. Today, I'll give you a detailed Introduction to IRF3205. It is an N-Channel HEXFET Power MOSFET that comes in a TO-220AB package and operates on 55V and 110A. It is mainly used for dynamic dv/dt rating and consumer full bridge applications. Additionally, it falls under the category of ultra LOW on-resistance devices based on Advanced Process Technology, making it a building block of the electronic applications where fast switching is a major concern. In this post, I'll cover each and everything related to this transistor, its main features, working, pinout, and applications. Let's get down to the nitty-gritty of this tiny component.

Introduction to IRF3205

• IRF3205 is an N-Channel HEXFET Power MOSFET that is mainly based on Advanced Process Technology and used for fast switching purpose.
• International Rectifier has introduced this device with the aim to generate extremely low on-resistance per silicon area.
• This power MOSFET is known as the voltage controlled device that mainly contains three terminals called:
  • Drain
  • Gate
  • Source

• The voltage at Gate Terminal is used to handle the conductivity on other two terminals.
• The low thermal resistance and operating temperature around 175°C make this device an ideal choice for commercial industrial applications, providing power dissipation of around 50 watts.

• This Power MOSFET differs from the normal MOSFET, where former comes with gate layered with thick oxide and can experience high input voltage while the later comes with thin gate oxide without the ability to withstand high voltage i.e. applying high voltage will drastically affect the overall performance of the device.
• It features benchmark high package current ratings - appropriate for high power DC motors, power tools, and industrial applications.

IRF3205 Pinout

• IRF3205 Pinout consists of 3 Pins in total.
• All these pins, along with their name & type are shown in below table:

IRF3205 Pinout
Pin#	Name	Symbol	Type	Function
1	Gate	G	P-Type	Controls the current between Drain & Source
2	Drain	D	N-Type	Electrons Emitter
3	Source	S	N-Type	Electrons Collector

• Movement of electrons plays an important role in the current flowing from drain to source terminal.
• The output current is highly dependent on the voltage applied to the gate terminal.

Working

• The gate, source and drain in this MOSFET are analogous to the base, collector, and emitter in the BJT (Bipolar Junction Transistors)
• The source and drain are made up of n-type material while component body and the substrate is made up of p-type material.
• Adding silicon dioxide on the substrate layer gives this device a metal oxide semiconductor construction.
• It is a unipolar device where conduction is carried out by the movement of electrons.
• An insulating layer is inserted in the device that makes gate terminals separated from the entire body. The region between drain and source is called N-channel that is controlled by the voltage present at the gate terminal.
• MOSFET stays ahead of the curve when they are compared to BJT as the former needs no input current to control a large amount of current on remaining two terminals.

• Applying a positive voltage at this MOS structure will change the charge distribution in the semiconductor where holes present under the oxide layer deal with the force, allowing the holes to move downward.
• It is important to note that, the bound negative charges are connected with acceptors atoms that are mainly responsible for flocking the depletion region.
• The electrons, if applied with abundance, will help in increasing the overall channel conductivity, changing the substrate into the N-type material.

IRF3205 Proteus Simulation

• As I have told you earlier, IRF3205 is an N-channel Mosfet used for fast switching, that's why it's an ideal selection for designing H-Bridge.
• I have designed this Proteus Simulation where I have converted DC voltage into AC and if you look at it closely then I have used IRF3205 MOSFET in the H-Bridge:

• Moreover, I have used IRF5210 for the counter P-Type Mostel in H-Bridge.
• If you run your simulation then you will get AC sine wave in your oscilloscope, as shown in below figure:

• You can download this simulation by clicking the below button:

Download Proteus Simulation

IRF3205 Features

• Dynamic dv/dt Rating
• N Channel power MOSFET
• 55V, 110A
• TO-220
• 175°C Operating Temperature
• Fully Avalanche Rated
• Ultra Low On-Resistance
• Advanced Process Technology
• Fast Switching

IFR3205 Absolute Maximum Ratings

Following figures shows the absolute maximum ratings of IRF3205.

• These are the stress ratings that are important for the execution of the electronic circuit. If these stress ratings are exceeded from absolute maximum ratings, they can affect the overall nature and performance of the project, resulting in keeping your project in a total stall.
• Similarly, if these ratings are applied for the maximum period of time above normal operating conditions they can affect the reliability of the device.
• It is preferred to get a hold of these ratings before placing the device in the circuit, making sure if it undergoes the same operating conditions and stress ratings as provided by the manufacturer.

Applications

• Fast switching applications
• Consumer Full-Bridge
• Industrical and Commercial applications
• Full-Bridge
• Push-Pull

That's all for today. I hope I have given you everything you needed to know about IRF3205. If you are unsure or have any question, you can ask me in the comment section below. I'd love to help you in any way I can. Feel free to keep us updated with your valuable feedback and suggestions - they help us provide you quality work as per your needs and requirements. Thanks for reading the article.

Introduction to IRF4905

Hey Guys! Welcome you onboard. Today, I'll discuss the details on the Introduction to IRF4905. It is a P-Channel HEXFET Power MOSFET available in a TO-220AB package and is based on Advanced Process Technology. It is mainly used for fast switching purpose, capable of providing ultra-low on-resistance. This tiny device comes with three terminals called gate, drain and source where the gate terminal is used to control the current on remaining two terminals. The area between source and drain is known as a channel that is widely dependent on the voltage applied to the gate terminal. In this post, I'll cover each and everything related to this P channel MOSFET, its main features, working, pinout and applications. Let's jump right in and explore everything you need to know.

Introduction to IRF4905

• IRF4905 is a P-Channel HEXFET Power MOSFET available in a TO-220AB package and is based on Advanced Process Technology.
• It comes with three main terminals called drain, gate and source that are analogous to the emitter, base, and collector in the BJT (Bipolar Junction Transistors)
• It is a unipolar device where only one charge carriers i.e. holes are responsible for the current conduction.
• There are two types of MOSFET available for the development of electronic projects i.e. P channel and N channel both make use of single charge carriers where former contain holes as the major charge carriers and later contain electrons as the major charge carriers.

• This device falls under the category of Power MOSFET, different from normal MOSFET, where former contains thick gate oxide that can withstand high input voltage while the later comes with thin gate oxide, making it unable to bear high input voltage.

Working of IRF4905

• In this MOSFET transistor, gate plays a vital role to handle the conductivity in the channel between drain and source. As it is a P-Channel - holes will be responsible for the current conduction.
• In this components, the body and substrate are composed of N-type material while the drain and source are composed of P-type material - Laying out an exact oppositive composition as compared to N-Channel MOSFET.
• Following figure shows the internal construction of IRF4905.

• Applying negative voltage at the gate terminal will move the oxide layer downward in the substrate layer with a strong repulsive force, allowing positive holes to be accumulated around the gate region.
• The negative voltage applied at the gate terminal attracts the holes, helping to produce the p-type conducting channel using n-type substrate material.

IRF4905 Pinout

Following figure shows the pinout of IRF4905.

IRF 4905 Features

• Dynamic dv/dt rating
• Advance Process Technology
• P-Channel
• Fast Switching
• 175 C operating temperature
• Fully Avalanche Rated
• Ultra Low On Resistance

IRF4905 Absolute Maximum Ratings

Following figure shows the absolute maximum ratings of this P-Channel MOSFET.

• These are the stress ratings of this transistor which play a vital role in the execution of the electronic circuit. If these stress ratings are exceeded from absolute maximum ratings, they can affect the overall performance of the project.
• Also, if these ratings are applied for the maximum period of time above normal operating conditions, they can drastically affect the reliability of the device.
• It is advised to check these ratings before placing the device in the circuit in order to avoid any hassle in the future.

Applications

• Commercial and Industrial Applications
• Fast Switching
• Amplification Purpose

That's all for today. I hope you have found this article useful. If you are feeling skeptical or have any question, you can ask me in the comment section below. I'd love to guide you according to the best of my expertise. You are most welcome to feed us with your valuable suggestions - they help us provide you quality work as per your needs and requirements. Thanks for reading the article.

ESP8266 Pinout, Datasheet, Features & Applications

Hello friends! Hope you are doing well. Today, we will have a look at the detailed Introduction to ESP8266 WiFi module. ESP8266 is a very low-cost & user-friendly WiFi module, which develops a simple TCP/IP connection and can easily be interfaced with microcontrollers via Serial Port. The first chip in this series was ESP-01 which gained sheer attention in the market. In this tutorial, we will discuss the ESP8266 WiFi module along with its pinout, features, specifications, applications and datasheet. Let's dive in and nail down everything related to this device.

ESP8266 WiFi Module

• ESP8266 (also called ESP8266 Wireless Transceiver) is a cost-effective, easy-to-operate, compact-sized & low-powered WiFi module, designed by Espressif Systems, that supports both TCP/IP and Serial Protocol.
• It's normally used in IOT cloud-based embedded projects and is considered the most widely used WiFi module because of its low cost and small size.
• It runs at an operating voltage of 3V and can handle a maximum voltage of around 3.6 V, so an external logic level converter is required if you are using 5V supply.

• ESP8266 WiFi module can easily be interfaced with microcontrollers board (i.e. Arduino UNO) via Serial Port.
• There are numerous breakout boards available based on ESP8266 WiFi Module (i.e. ESP8266 NodeMCU V3).
• Beause of its compact size, its mostly used in autonomous projects (i.e. Robotics).

• Other than ESP8266, "Espressif Systems" has designed many other ESP WiFi modules, few of them are shown in below figure:

Now let's have a look at the ESP8266 Pinout, necessary for interfacing with microcontrollers.

ESP8266 Pinout

• ESP8266 Pinout consists of 8 pins in total, which are given in below table along with their operation:

ESP8266 Pinout
No.	Pin Name	Working
1	RX	Serial Receiver Pin
2	Vcc	Power Pin (+3.3 V; can handle up to 3.6 V)
3	GPIO 0	General-purpose I/O No. 0
4	RST	Reset
5	CH_PD	Chip power-down
6	GPIO 2	General-purpose I/O No. 2
7	TX	Serial Transmitter Pin
8	GND	Ground

• Each pin comes with a specific function associated with it where Vcc and GND are voltage source and ground respectively.
• RX and TX are used for communication where TX is dedicated for data transmission and RX is used receiving data.

ESP8266 Datasheet

• You can download ESP8266 Datasheet by clicking the below button:

Download ESP8266 Datasheet

ESP8266 Features

• It is also known as a system-on-chip (SoC) and comes with a 32-bit Tensilica microcontroller, antenna switches, RF balun, power amplifier, standard digital peripheral interfaces, low noise receive amplifier, power management module and filter capability.
• The processor is based on Tensilica Xtensa Diamond Standard 106Micro and runs at 80 MHz.
• It incorporates 64 KiB boot ROM, 80 KiB user data RAM and 32 KiB instruction RAM.
• It supports Wi-Fi 802.11 b/g/n around 2.4 GHz and other features including 16 GPIO, Inter-Integrated Circuit (I²C), Serial Peripheral Interface (SPI), 10-bit ADC, and I²S interfaces with DMA.
• External QSPI flash memory is accessed through SPI and supports up to 16 MiB and 512 KiB to 4 MiB is initially included in the module.
• It is a major development in terms of wireless communication with little circuitry. and contains onboard regulator that helps in providing 3.3V consistent power to the board.
• It supports APSD which makes it an ideal choice for VoIP applications and Bluetooth interfaces.

How to Power Up the Module

• You can power up the device with PC port using USB to Serial adaptor. The 2 AA  and LIPO batteries are equally handy for powering up the device.
• It is advised to not power this device directly with 5V dev board. Doing so can severely affect the quality and overall performance of the device.

ESP8266 NodeMCU

• There are numerous breakout boards designed by different companies, based on this ESP8266 WiFi module.
• Among these breakout boards, ESP8266 NodeMCU is the most popular one.
• Here's the Pinout Diagram of ESP8266 NodeMCU:

ESP8266 Projects & Applications

ESP8266 WiFi module is widely used in embedded projects and thus brings WiFi capability. Here's few ESP8266 Projects & Applications:

• Wireless Web Server
• Geolocation using ESP8266
• Pressure Sensors on Railway Tracks
• Air Pollution Meter
• Temperature logging system
• World’s smallest IoT project
• Wi-Fi controlled robot
• Humidity and temperature monitoring
• M2M using ESP8266

That's all for today. I hope I have given you everything you needed to know regarding this WiFi module. If you are unsure or have any question, you can ask me in the comment section below. I'd love to help you in any way I can. You are most welcome to keep us updated with your suggestions so we keep providing quality work that resonates with your needs and demands. Thanks for reading the article.

Introduction to RJ45

Hi Guys! Hope you are doing well. We always strive to give the most relevant information as per your needs and demands. Today, I'll discuss the details on the Introduction to RJ45. It is a type of standard connector mainly used for data transmission. Almost all ethernet cables come with this connector on each end, and they, sometimes, known as RJ cables. The RJ in the connector stands for registered jack while 45 defines the number of interface standard. In this post, I'll cover each and everything related to RJ45, why it used, features, and main applications. Let's dive right in and nail down everything you need to know.

Introduction to RJ45

• RJ45 is a type of connector, mainly used for Ethernet networking including connection with PC network cards, data switches, WiFi access points, and routers.
• It is connected to each end of Ethernet cables and acts as the main source for transferring data. RJ stands for registered jack and ethernet cables are also known as RJ cables.
• The most common standard for RJ cables is known as CAT5 (Category 5)
• In simple words, connectors at the end of ethernet cables are known as RJ45 connectors which also indicate how the cables are wired, while ethernet cables are termed as CAT5 (also RJ cables) which show the maximum speed the cable can attain.
• RJ connector comes with eight pins which indicate it can house eight wires inside. All these wires come in different colors i.e four are in solid color while the remaining four are stripped. These wires are combined in twisted pairs that help in reducing the crosstalk and canceling EMI.

• These cables are not shielded and are merely twisted for noise reduction.
• CAT cables are mostly used in networking and can handle bandwidth around 100mbps.
• These cables fail to work in high-speed environments, in that case, CAT5 is widely replaced by CAT6.
• RJ45 cables deem feasible for both long and short distance, and apart from supporting ethernet protocol, they also work for ATM and serial ISDN T1 and E1.
• RJ45 come with 8 wires and only 4 of them take part in the communication where pin 1 and 2 are used for data transmission while pin 3 and 4 are used for receiving data. (only in ethernet interface)
• In serial and ISDN protocols, all pins take part in the communication and are wired in a straight through configuration.
• Don't get confused between RJ connectors and RJ ports. Both are the part of RJ protocol where connectors serve as a (male) connector and port that receives the connector is known as (female) port.

 RJ45 Pinout and Wiring Standards

RJ cables are wired in two ways named T-568A and T-568B. Wiring standards in both of them are different and listed below.

• Both wiring schemes are equally practiced and commonly supported by most of the devices, however, T-568A is preferred over other.

Following figure shows the pinout of RJ45 (T-568A). Following figure shows the pinout of the RJ45 (T-568B).

• In some networking applications, crossover ethernet cable is a prerequisite which contains T-568B at one end and T-568A on the other end.
• This cable is mainly used in computer-to-computer connections.

Difference between RJ45 and RJ11

• Both connectors are different in terms of size, wires, and applications.
• RJ45 is relatively large as compared to RJ11 and mainly used to build a connection with routers, computers, XBoxes, hardware firewalls and play stations. It comes with 8 wires.

• While RJ11 is smaller in size, comes with 4 wires and mainly used for connection with telephone, modem, and fax machine.
• Although RJ11 comes in smaller size and can fit in the RJ45 slot, however, it is not recommended to use this practice. Doing so can damage the slot and affect the overall working of the device in which it is plugged in.

Types of Ethernet Cables

Ethernet cables are widely used for telecommunication and networking purpose. They come in different types based on nature and data transmission speed they can carry along the length of the wire. RJ45 connectors are connected on both sides of the cables that act as a source of data transmission. Following are the main types of Ethernet cables used for networking and telecommunication purpose. CAT-1. It stands for category 1 that doesn't support TIA (telecommunication industries association). It is mainly used for standard telephone wiring and ISDN. CAT-2. Similar to CAT-1, this type of wiring is not recognized by TIA. It is mainly used for token ring wiring and capable of carrying data at the rate of 4Mbit/s. This is the old version of cable wiring and widely abandoned by advanced cable categories. CAT-3. This cable wiring is widely supported and recognized by TIA/EIA. It is mainly used for data networks and can carry data at the rate of 100Mbit/s. However, this type of wiring is also becoming obsolete because of less data transmission speed and frequency for carrying out different functions at the decent pace. CAT-4. This type of cable wiring is not supported by TIA. It is widely used for token ring networks with the capability of supporting frequency up to 20MHz. CAT-5. Category 5 cables were introduced with the intention of providing more speed as compared to their predecessors. They can transmit frequency up to 100MHz and are not recognized by TIA. This cable wiring uses two twisted pair and is not recognized by TIA. The CAT-5 cable is not recommended for recent applications, however, it is useful for 100Base-T and 1000Base-T networks as it provides suitable speed and frequency for the data networks. CAT-5e. This cable wiring is almost similar to CAT-5 with some exemptions in terms of data transmission speed and TIA recognition. It is preferred for applications where speed is a major concern as it can support speed up to 125 Mbps. The physical appearance of this wiring is similar to CAT-5 and widely used for 100Base-T and 1000Base-T networks. CAT-6. This cable wiring is recognized by TIA and stays ahead of other ethernet cables in terms of performance and speed i.e. supports up to 10Gbps. They come with an outer foil or braided shielding and cover less space as they are tightly wound as compared to CAT-5 and CAT-5e. The shielding minimizes the crosstalk and noise and protects the twisted pair of wires inside the cable. They can work and cover a distance of around 55 meters. CAT-6a. It stands for Category 6 Augmented cable. They come with higher transmission speed, encompass maximum bandwidth and are less flexible than CAT-6 cables. They can carry more data along the length of the cable as compared to their predecessors and cover more distance without losing the bit of accuracy. The shielding is added in the wiring that protects the cable and helps in removing the crosstalk. CAT-7. It supports frequency up to 600 Mbps and comes with four individually shielded pairs. It works best in many applications for carrying out data transmission at a decent pace. They are introduced for rated speed of around 10 Gigabit. CAT-7a. These cables are used for augmented specifications that can support speed around 10 Gigabit. They cover frequency up to 1000 MHz and are quite identical to CAT-7 cables in terms of physical appearance and performance capability.

How to Connect Two Computers Using Ethernet Cables

It is very easy to connect two computers for data transmission using ethernet cables. The CAT-5 or CAT-5e crossover cables are widely used for this purpose and prevent from losing any data during transmission. These cables are quite identical to straight through cables but come with twisted wires on both ends. You can use the following steps to connect two computers using ethernet cables.

• Connect one end of the cable with RJ45 connector into the ethernet port of the computer. Plug the other end of the cable into another computer.
• Log in to one of the computers.
• Go to the search box at the bottom left of the computer and type "Network and Sharing Center" and click it.
• Then go to the "Change Adaptor Settings" on the top left side.

• Right click on the "Ethernet" and go to properties.
• Then select "Internet Protocol version 4 TCP/IPv4" and click properties.

• Select the IP address and subnet mask at the two computers as mentioned below.

To check the connection, restart both PC and use the below instructions.

• ping 192.168.0.2 -t: from the second PC
• ping 192.168.0.1 -t: from the first PC

Right click on this PC option and click on "Change Settings" option.

• The "Workgroup" name should be identical in both PC, otherwise, ethernet connection won't work.
• If you want to share whole drive, just right click on the drive you want to share and select share with "Advanced Sharing Options" and check the box beside share this folder option and click "OK" to apply changes.

Applications

• RJ45 are mainly used in ethernet cables for data transmission. They come in two types i.e. T-568A and T-568B.
• As compared to the RJ11 connector, RJ45 comes with more applications including ethernet networking, industrial automation, and telecommunications.

That's all for today. I hope I have given you everything you need to know about RJ45. However, if you are feeling skeptical or have any question, you can approach me in the comment section below. I'd love to help you in any way I can. Feel free to keep us updated with your valuable feedback and suggestions, they help us provide you quality work so you keep coming back for what we have to offer. Thanks for reading the article.

Introduction to Transistor

Hi Guys! Hope you are doing fine. Today, I am going to give you a detailed Introduction to Transistor. A transistor is a semiconductor device that comes with three terminals, where a small current at one terminal is used to control current at the other terminals. Transistors are mainly used for the amplification of electronic signals. Transistors were first invented by American Physicists John Bardeen in 1947. Before the inception of transistors, vacuum tubes were used to control the electronic signals. These vacuum tubes come with anode & cathode arrangement and the potential difference across these ends produces the electric current. In the later versions, a filament is added which is used to provide heat to the cathode that directs the electrons towards the anode side. Their complex design, more power consumption set a pathway for the development of the transistors that play an important role in the creation of modern electronic devices. Before you get ahold of the transistor, I'd highly suggest you read the article on which is the building block of the transistor.

What is Diode?

Before going into the details of the transistor, let's first recall some points from the previous lecture Introduction to Diode:

• A diode is a semiconductor device, that is developed when two types of semiconductor materials(i.e. N-Type and P-Type) are joined together.
• In the construction of the diode, the PN junction is formed by the combination of P-type & N-type material.
• Electrons(-ve charge) are major charge carriers in the N-Type material and Holes(+ve charge) are major charge carriers in the P-Type material.

Transistors are formed when an extra layer is added to this PN junction. Transistors come in various types including BJTs, JFETs, MOSFET. BJTs are the bipolar junction transistors which use two charge carriers i.e. electrons and holes for electrical conduction. And BJTs are the current controlled devices where small current at one terminal is used to control large current at other terminals. While JFETs are the unipolar devices where conduction is carried out by the movement of only one charge carrier. Let's dive in and explore what is the main function of a transistor and how it is used for the development of many electronic circuits.

Introduction to Transistor

• A transistor is a three-terminal electronic device where small current at one terminal is used to control large current at other terminals. Transistors are mainly used for the amplification of the electronic signals.
• Transistor comes with three terminals called emitter, base, and collector which are used for the external connection with electronic circuits.
• Transistors were created with the intention of providing cheap electronics. They are available individually, however, most of the time they are packed together in integrated circuits which are then used for the developments of processors, computer memory chips, and complex ICs.
• A transistor is a combination of two words i.e. transfer and varistor where each layer comes with an ability to transfer current to other layers when a proper biasing voltage is applied across one of the layers.
• Transistor comes with three layers and two PN junctions where an emitter-base junction is forward biased and the collector-base junction is reverse biased.
• Most of the transistors are created using silicon and germanium that are less expensive to vacuum tube and require less power to operate.
• Based on the mobility of major charge carriers, transistors are divided into two types NPN and PNP transistors. Both are different in terms of electrical behaviors and physical construction.
• The NPN transistors comes with three layers i.e. two N-doped layers and one P-doped layer. The P-doped layer is sandwiched between two N-doped layers. In NPN transistors, conduction is carried out by both charge carriers i.e. electrons and holes, however, electrons are major charge carriers in NPN transistors.

• Similarly, PNP transistors comes with three layers i.e. two P-doped layers and one N-doped layer. The N-doped layer exists between two P-doped layers. Actually, N-doped layer is responsible for triggering transistor action. When a proper bias voltage is applied at the P-doped layer, it draws current which is then used to control large current at other terminals.

• Transistors that come in NPN and PNP configurations are nothing but the combinations of two diodes joined back to back.
• In NPN transistor current flows from collector to emitter, while in PNP transistor current flows from emitter to collector.
• The current directions and voltage polarities are always opposite in both transistors. Suppose, if a current is flowing in a clockwise direction in NPN transistor and comes with positive polarity at the base terminal, it will flow in an anticlockwise direction in PNP transistor where voltage polarity becomes negative.
• PN junction formed between two semiconductor material is a building block of the transistor. When PN junction is formed, major charge carriers in N-region (electrons) cross the junction and reach the P-region where they recombine with holes. Similarly, major charge carriers in P-region (holes) cross the junction and reach the N-region where they recombine with electrons.
• The diffusion of electrons and holes depends on the biasing voltage applied across the junction.
• The voltage is said to have forward biased when P-region is connected with positive terminal of the battery and N-region is connected with the negative terminal of the battery.

• Under the forward biased condition, holes and electrons can easily cross the junction and maintain a current across the junction. When this diffusion occurs, it will generate the region across the junction which is depleted with major charge carriers. This region is known as depletion region.
• As long as the forward biased voltage is applied, current flows across the junction. Diffusion of holes and electrons create an electric field within the junction. This electric field resists the further diffusion of charge carriers.
• As said earlier, transistor comes with two PN junctions where one junction is forward biased and other junction is reverse biased.

Modes of Transistor

Transistor comes with different modes of operation. Let's discuss them one by one.

Active Mode

• Active mode is used for amplification of the electronic signal where small current at the base terminal is being amplified at the collector terminal.
• The base terminal is responsible for the transistor action which controls the number of main charge carriers (electrons in case of NPN transistor and holes in case of PNP transistor) flowing through it and draws a small current when a proper bias voltage is applied.

Cut-Off Mode

• In this mode, transistor works as an open switch and no current flows across the terminals where a base voltage is less than a voltage at other terminals.

Saturation Mode

• This mode is considered as an ON switch where current flows freely from collector to emitter.
• In this condition, the voltage difference between collector and emitter is zero, and the collector current is restricted by a supply voltage and load resistance.
• In saturation mode, both junctions are forward biased and base voltage is greater than the voltage at other terminals.

Reverse Active Mode

• This mode acts as an active mode with one exception i.e. current direction is reversed.
• Current flows from emitter to collector which is proportional to the base current.
• The base current is highly influenced by the bias voltage applied at the terminal which then controls large current at other terminals.
• The voltage at the terminals is related in the following way.

Current Gain

Current gain plays an important role in the function of the transistor. Following are two common current gains in a transistor.

Common-Emitter Current Gain

• Common-Emitter current gain is a ratio between collector current and base current.
• This is also known as an amplification factor which defines the amount of current being amplified.
• It is called beta and denoted by ß. The beta value ranges from 20 to 1000, however, most of the time its value is taken as 50.

Common-Base Current Gain

• Another current gain is common-base current gain which is a ratio between collector current and emitter current.
• It is called alpha and denoted by a. The alpha value is taken as unity.

Applications of Transistor

• Transistors are mainly used for the amplification of low and high-frequency AC signals.
• No current is produced at the collector terminal unless there is a current at the base terminal. This process allows the transistor to work as a switch. The transistor can be turned ON and OFF by controlling the bias voltage at the base terminal.
• Based on requirements, a transistor can be made to operate in cut-off or saturation region for switching applications.
• Integrated circuits added in the development of the processors are made from transistors.
• Used in the development of logarithmic converters and logic gates.
• Transistors are widely used in modern electronics especially where signal processing and radio transmission is required.

That's all for today. I hope you have found this article useful. We always keep your demands on the top and develop a content that truly resonates with your field of interest. If you are unsure or have any question, you can ask me in the comment section below. I'd love to help you in any way I can. Thanks for reading the article.