The Engineering Projects

Introduction to HC-SR501

Hello friends, I hope you all are doing great. In today's tutorial, we are gonna have a look at a detailed Introduction to HC-SR501. HC-SR501 is a motion detector sensor, that uses infrared waves for the detection of an object. It is an automatic control device, and also has large sensitivity and high reliability. It is used in auto-sensing control devices, where we need to perform motion detection. HC-SR501 is used in industrial projects and buildings for security purposes. In today's post, we will have a look at its pinout, working, protocol, circuit diagram, etc. I will also share some links to projects where I have interfaced it with Arduino and some other microcontrollers. Friends if you have any questions please ask in the comments I will try my best to solve your problems and I will give you a comprehensive answer. So let's start with a basic Introduction to HC-SR501:

Introduction of HC-SR501

• HC-SR501 is a Passive Infrared (PIR) motion detector sensor.
• It is used for the detection of moving objects, particularly for the human.
• Such, a device consists of such components and is integrated as a component of a system that automatically performs a task or alerts a user motion in that area.
• They form a vital component of security,  home control, energy efficiency, automatic light control and other useful systems.

• Its module also contains time delay adjustment and trigger selection which allow for fine tuning with your application.
• Now let's have a look at the HC-SR501 pinout.

HC-SR501 PINOUT

• HC-SR501 has a total of three pinout, which are:
  • PIN 1: This pin is Vcc, it is used for input voltage. Its input voltage varies from 5V to 12V.
  • PIN 2: It's the OUT Pin which is fed to the microcontroller.
  • PIN 3: We have to apply ground on this pin.
• Now, for better understanding lets have look a at HC-SR501 Pinout figure:

• Lets have a look at working of HC-SR501:

Working of HC-SR501

• Every living object with a temperature above Absolute Zero (0 Kelvin / -273.15 °C) emit heat energy in the form of infrared radiations.
• The hotter an object is the more radiation it emits. Human body works on a similar pattern and emits heat energy.
• HC-SR 501 sensor is designed to detect such level of infrared radiation. It basically consists of two main parts:
  • A Pyroelectric Sensor.
  • A special lens called Fresnel lens which focuses the infrared signals onto the pyroelectric sensor.
•  For better understanding lets see figure and explain it.
• A pyroelectric sensor has two rectangular slots in it, which made of  such material which allow infrared radiation to pass through it.
• Behind these two slots, there are two sensor electrodes,
  • One responsible for positive output.
  • Second for negative output.
• The two electrode wire up so that they cancel each other out. If one half sees less or more infrared radiations  then other, the output will swing high or low.

Lets discuss these two conditions.

• When the sensor is idle: If there is no movement around the sensor, both slots detect the same amount of infrared radiations, resulting in a zero output signal.
• When a warm body like a human or animal passes by: If someone pass by as sensor then, it first intercept  one half of the sensor, which causes a positive differential change between the two halves. When the warm body leaves  the sensing area, the reverse happen, then the sensor generates a negative differential change.  The Corresponding pulse of signals results in the sensor setting its output pin high.

Using HC-SR501 as a Standalone Unit

• One of the reasons, HC-SR501 to be extremely popular is the fact that HC-SR 501 is a very versatile sensor that is pretty capable all on its own.
• By using it with other microelectronic such as Arduino you can expand upon its versatility even further.

Now lets have a look at its versatility by this circuit diagram. Lets discuss this circuit:

• Connection for this circuit is very simple. Batteries are connected with Vcc and GND of the sensor and small Red LED connected to the output pin through a 220O current limiting resistor.
• When the sensor detects motion, the output pin will go “high” and light up the LED.
• One thing is to be remembered is that once you power up the circuit you need to wait 30-60 seconds for the  to acclimatize to the infrared energy in the room.
• During this time LED may blink a little. Weight until LED is off and move around in front of it to  see led light up.
• Let discuss its circuit diagram with aurdino.

HC-SR501 Interfaced With Aurdino

• Now we have an understanding of HC-SR501 working, lets discus its interfacing with Aurdino. Connection of this circuit is very simple.
• HC-SR501 acts as a digital sensor so all you need to do is listen for the output pin to flip HIGH or LOW.
• For correctly working, you will want to set the jumper on the HC-SR501 to the H (Retriggering) position.
• You should also download PIR Sensor Library for Proteus so that you can easily simulate it in Proteus.
• You should also have a look at PIR Sensor Arduino Interfacing.
• Lets see a diagram of this circuit.

Lets now discuss some features of HC SR501:

HC-SR501 Features

• Wide range of voltages we can apply on its input varying from 4.V to 12V (+5V recommended).
• Its best feature is that it can distinguish  between men movement and object movement.
• Its Output voltage is High/Low (3.3V TTL).
• It cover a distance of 7 meter and an area of 110 degrees.
• It's operating temperature is  from -20° to +80° Celsius.

Now lets discuss HC-SR501 functional description.

HC SR501 Functional Description

Lets discuss HC-SR501 Functional Description with detail and know how it operate when someone come in its working range.

• When someone comes under infrared waves regions, then  sensor detect variations in infrared waves it  trip alarm and tell about someone appearance at that point. We can its adjustment according to our requirements.
  • HC-SR501 Initialization:
• When we start function on it, it require a minute for the initiate. During this period, it does not work properly. During this period for it to work properly, we need a circuit or controller to take this initialization period into consideration.
  • HC-SR501 Area of Detection:
• In the coming line, we will discuss about its detection area.
• It works in the range of 110 degree cone area and 3 to 7 meters.

 HC -SR 501 Applications

These are some application of HC-SR501:

•  It can be used as Automatically sensing light for Floor, bathroom, basement, porch, warehouse and in Garage.
•  It can also be used in the ventilator.
• We can use it for security purposes as well.

So, that was all about Passive Infrared motion sensor HC-SR501. I hope you have enjoyed today's tutorial. Let me know if you have any questions. Will meet you guys in the next tutorial. Till then take care !!! :)

Introduction to DS18B20

Hello friends, I hope you all are doing great. In today's tutorial, we are gonna have a look at a detailed Introduction to DS18B20. DS18B20 is a temperature sensor that can measure temperature from -55^oC to +125^oC with an accuracy of +- 5%. It follows 1 wire protocol which has revolutionized the digital world. Because of its 1 wire protocol, you can control multiple sensors from a single pin of Microcontroller.

DS18B20 is normally used in industrial projects where high accuracy is necessary. I will give you a detailed overview of this temperature sensor in today's post where we will have a look at its Pinout, working, protocol, etc. I will also share some links to projects where I have interfaced it with Arduino or other microcontrollers. If you have any questions, please ask in comments and I will try my best to resolve them all. So, let's get started with a basic Introduction to DS18B20:

Introduction to DS18B20

• DS18B20 is a digital temperature sensor that follows a 1-wire protocol and can measure temperature from -55^oC to +125^oC ( -67^oF to +257^oF ) with an accuracy of +-5%.
• Data received from the single wire is in the ranges of 9-bit to 12-bit.

• As DS18B20 follows the 1-wire protocol so we can control this sensor via a single pin of Microcontroller. (We also have to provide GND)
• 1-wire protocol is an advanced level protocol and each DS18B20 is equipped with a serial code of 64 bit which helps in controlling multiple sensors via a single pin of the microcontroller.
• In simple words, it assigns different addresses to all sensors attached and by calling the address, you can get that sensor's value.
• So, now let's have a look at the DS18B20 Pinout:

DS1820 Pinout

• DS18B20 has 3 pins in total, which are:
  • Pin # 1: Vcc ( We have to provide +5V here ).
  • Pin # 2: Data Pin ( It's the 1-wire from where we will get temperature readings ).
  • Pin # 3: GND ( We have to provide ground here ).
• It is available in two packages, one is simple while the other one is waterproof DS18B20, both of their pinouts are shown in the below figure:

• Now let's have a look at some of DS18B20's Characteristics and features:

DS18B20 Features

• I have assembled a table where I have added all the features and characteristics of DS18B20.

No.	Parameter	Symbol	Value	Unit
1.	Supply Voltage	VDD	+3 to 5.5	V
2.	Pull-up Supply Voltage	VPU	+3 to 5.5	V
3.	Input Logic Low	VIL	-0.3 to +0.8	V
4.	Input Logic High	VIH	+2.2	V
5.	Sink Current	IL	4.0	ma
6.	Standby Current	IDDS	750 to 1000	na
7.	Active Current	IDD	1 to 1.5	ma
8.	DQ Input Current	IDQ	5	ua
9.	Drift		+-2	C
10.	NV Write Cycle Time	tWR	2 to 10	ms
11.	EEPROM Writes	NEEWR	50k	writes
12.	EEPROM Data Retention	tEEDR	10	years
13	Temperature Conversion Time	tCONV	93.75	ms
14.	Time to Strong Pullup On	tSPON	10	ms
15.	Time Slot	tSLOT	120	us
16.	Recovery Time	TREC	1	us
17.	Write 0 Low Time	tLOW0	120	us
18.	Write 1 Low Time	tLOW1	15	us
19	Read Data Valid	tRDV	15	us
20.	Reset Time High	tRSTH	480	us
21	Reset Time Low	tRSTL	480	us
22.	Presence-Detect High	tPDHIGH	60	us
23	Presence-Detect Low	tPDLOW	240	us
20.	Capacitance	CIN/OUT	25	pf

 

• Let's have a look at one wire Bus system:

 One Wire Bus System

• As I told earlier that DS18B20 follows 1 wire protocol, so in order to understand its working, we must have a look at this protocol first.
• The main advantage of 1 wire protocol is that we can control multiple 1-wire devices via a single pin of Microcontroller.
• You must have heard of the master-slave system, where 1 master device can control or communicate with all slave devices.
• 1-wire protocol follows a similar master-slave system, where microcontroller acts as a master and all our 1-wire devices e.g. DS18B20 act as slaves.
• If we have interfaced only one device with our microcontroller then such a system is called a single drop but if we interface multiple 1-wire devices via a single pin then it's called multidrop system.
• Now let's have a better understanding of One Wire System from the figure given below:

• Now let's have a look at DS18B20 Power Supply:

Power Supply of DS18B20

• There are two ways to power up this temperature sensor DS18B20, which are:
  • External Power Supply.
  • Parasite Power Supply.
• Let's discuss both of these power supplies in detail:                                    

External Power supply of DS18B20

• In this method, we provide power to DS18B20 by conventional method i.e. battery or adapter.
• This method is applicable for temperature below +100 degree Celsius.
• The main benefit of this method is, there is no extra load on the resistor which uses in this method and it performs work correctly. 
•  Let's have a look at the connections in the below figure:

Parasite Power Mode of DS18B20

• In this method, we do not need a special power supply.
• This method is used for temperature greater than +100 Celsius.
• In a normal situation, this method provides efficient current and voltage to DS18B20 
• But, in special work when DS18B20 convert temperature value into digital then current value increase to such value which can damage resister.
• To limit current in save the value and good working of DS18B20 it is necessary to use pull up mosfet.
• As it is used only for specific temperature value there we use an external power supply.

Now, let's have a look at pictures of this method

Working of DS18B20

• It works on the principle of direct conversion of temperature into a digital value.
• Its main features are to change its bit numbers according to change in temperature 
• Like, it changes a bit in 9. 10, 11, and 12  bits as temperature changes in values 0.5 ° C. 0.25°C,1.25 and  0.0625°C respectively.
• Its default bits value is 12 but it changes values according to Temperature Change
• It has alarm and LCD as temperature changes alarms work and temperature value changes which we can get from LCD.
• Now let's have a look at the DS18B20 memory map 

DS18B20 Memory Map

• There are are two types of memories which have DS18B20
•  One SRAM  and other is EEPROM.
• Sram is volatile memory it has data only in on the condition 
• EEPROM is Non-volatile memory it stores data in the off condition
• EEPROM also has a low and high alarm trigger 
• To have a better understanding of Memory Map of DS18B20 look at pictures which gives a better idea of a memory map of ds18b20 

• Now let's have a look at Function Commands of DS18B20

DS18B20 Function Commands

These are function Commands of DS18B20. These commands allow some to read and write data on DS18B20 scratched memory. Let's discuss them

• Convert T[44h]: This command starts the single temperature conversion.
• Write scratched Pad [4Eh]: In this command, we can write data on memory of DS18B20 to three bytes. Data is transferred in the least multiple bits first.
• Read Scratched Pad[BEh]: In this command, we can read data on a scratched pad memory of DS18B20.
• Copy Scratchpad [48h]: This command data from the scratched pad and send data to EEPROM in 2, 3 and 4 bytes.
• Read Power Supply [B4h]: This command tells about the power supply mode of DS18B20.

Now let's have a look at Applications of DS18B20:

Applications of DS18B20

DS18B20 is used for temperature measurement. There are some applications of DS18B20:

• We can use it in the thermostat controls system.
• It can be used in industries as a temperature measuring device.
• It can be used as a thermometer.
• We can use it in thermally sensitive devices.   
• It can also use in HVAC systems.

So, that was all about temperature sensor DS18B20. I hope you have enjoyed today's tutorial. IF you have any questions then ask in comments and we will resolve them all. Thanks for reading. Take care !!! :)

Introduction to CR1220

Hi Fellas! Hope you are getting along with life pretty well. I am back to give you a daily dose of useful information. Today, I'll unlock the details on the Introduction to CR1220.  It is known as a lithium coin battery that comes with a high voltage around 3V and encompasses an ultra-compact design, helping you gid rid of the hassle of buying two or three extra traditional batteries, saving both cost and space required to adjust these cells in the relevant devices. In this post, I'll try to cover each and everything related to CR1220, breaking down its details in simple steps you can get a hold what is this about and how it is used for. Let's dive in and explore everything you need to know about this battery.

Introduction to CR1220

• CR1220 is a button cell, also known as lithium coin battery, that is mainly used in high power devices such as keyless entry devices, glucose monitors, heart-rate monitors, and toys & games.
• It comes in cylindrical shape and can retain power for a maximum period of time. If it is spared alone for one year, it will discharge only 1% of the total battery capacity.
• This battery is slightly different from CR2032 in terms of battery capacity, weight and lithium content as former comes with 35mAh capacity with 0.8g weight and 0.006 grams lithium content while later contains 285mAh capacity, 3gram weight, and 0.109gram lithium content.

• It features small and compact shape, making it an ideal choice for hard to reach places.
• Prior precautions are required to keep this device safe and away from the kids. If swallowed, this device can cause a severe health damage or death in some cases due to the chemical composition it incorporates.

• The output voltage it can deliver is around 3V, enough to drive some small devices like wristwatches and glucose monitors.
• Both positive and negative electrodes are stainless steel SUS430 and Nickel plated.
• It is important to note that, no coatings or other foreign objects are required on the surface of terminals that can severely affect the real use or performance of this coin cell.
• Battery compartments work best to encapsulate this battery, making it safe and away from the kids. They can be designed using two methods: an extra mechanical tool like a screwdriver is required to unlock the battery compartment or you can apply two independent movements of the securing mechanism by a single hand.
• These battery compartments come with an ability to retain different cells where capacities will vary by size.

CR1220 Features

Features of any device can help you better understand major functions associated with it, helping you make a final decision before picking the device for your relevant project. Following are the main features of CR1220.

Classification	Coin Cell Battery or Lithium Energizer
Product Name	CR1220
Output Voltage	3V
Chemical System	Lithium / Manganese Dioxide (Li/MnO2)
Capacity	35 mAh
Energy Density	153 milliwatt hr/g
Weight	0.8 gram
Lithium Content	0.006 grams
Self Discharge	1% / year
Type	Non-Rechargeable
Maximum Operating Temperature	70 °C
Minimum Operating Temperature	-30 °C

 

• Some cells are made from different chemical compositions, making them mechanically interchangeable which may directly service life voltage stability of the cell.

CR1220 Dimensions

Following figure shows the dimensions of CR1220.

• The dimensions are given in mm vs inches.
• Pay special heed while selecting the coin cell for a required device, the wrong pick can intensively affect the device performance, resulting in a sheer hindrance in the operating process.

CR1220 Applications

CR1220 comes with a wide range of applications that require temporary power on the fly. Following are some major applications of this coin cell.

• Keyless entry devices
• Glucose monitors
• Implantable cardiac defibrillators
• Heart-rate monitors
• Artificial cardiac pacemakers
• Toys & games

That's all for today. I hope you have found this read useful. If you are feeling skeptical or have any question you can approach me in the comment section below. I'd love to help you according to the best of my expertise. Feel free to keep us updated with your valuable feedback and suggestion, so we keep providing quality work and you keep visiting us for what we have to offer. Thanks for reading the article.

Introduction to S8050

Hey Guys! Hope you are doing well. I always strive to keep your technical needs and requirements quite in line with valuable information that helps you excel and thrive in engineering and technology. Today, I'll unlock the detailed Introduction to S8050 that is an NPN Epitaxial Silicon Transistor mainly used for push-pull amplification and general purpose switching applications. It is a low voltage and high current transistor, featuring collector current up to 700 mA and Collector-Emitter voltage around 25 V. I'll try to cover each and everything related to S8050, so you don't have to scratch your head browsing the whole internet and find all the information in one place. Let's dive in and kick off the nitty-gritty of this transistor.

Introduction to S8050

S8050 is an NPN Epitaxial Silicon Transistor that comes with low voltage and high current capabilities. It proves to be a bright spot for push-pull amplification and general purpose switching applications.

• This transistor mainly contains three terminals known as an emitter, base, and collector that are used for the external connection with the electronic circuits.

These terminals are different in terms of doping concentration where emitter terminal is highly doped as compared to base and collector terminals.

• The base terminal is lightly doped and the collector terminal is moderately doped where former controls the number of electrons and later collects the number of electrons from the base terminal. The small current at one terminal at one terminal is used to control large current at other terminals.

This transistor incorporates three layers where one P-doped semiconductor layer is encapsulated between the other two N-doped layers. The P-doped layer represents the base terminal while other two layers represent emitter and collector respectively.

• There are two types of transistors known as Unipolar Transistor and Bipolar Junction Transistors. The S8050 falls under the category of Bipolar Junction Transistor - as the name suggests it comes with two charge carriers: electrons and holes, however, electrons are the major charge carriers.

This transistor features two PN junctions: emitter-base junction that is forward biased and the collector-base junction that is reverse biased.

• It is important to note that, S8050 must be operating in a forward biased mode for a better performance. If a transistor is not forward biased, there will be no collector current, no matter how much voltage is applied at the base terminal.

The amplification is carried out a simple way when a voltage is applied at the base terminal, transistor draws small current which is then used to control large current at other terminals.

S8050 Pinout

S8050 mainly consists of three terminals. 1. Emitter 2. Base 3. Collector  Following shows the pinout of this transistor. The electron movement is mainly triggered by the voltage applied at the base terminal, resulting in the diffusion of electrons from the base to collector terminal.

• As the voltage is applied the electron from emitter terminal triggers and enters the base terminal, combining with the hole already present in the base terminal and the resulting pair disappears.

The number of electrons entering the base terminal from the emitter is greater than the number of holes diffusing into the emitter region that's why electrons are major charge carriers in case of NPN transistor.

• The base terminal is unable to handle all electrons entering it, subsequently, electrons move from the base to collector terminal.

S8050 Circuit Diagram

Following figure shows the circuit diagram of the S8050. In this NPN transistor, electrons are main charge carriers, unlike  PNP transistor where holes are major charge carriers.

• The base is more positive with respect to the emitter and the voltage on the collector must also be more positive than the base.

The collector is made physically larger than the base for two reasons: allowing a collector to deal with more heat without damage and increasing the chance of carriers that enter the collector terminal.

• Two current gain factors: common-emitter current gain and common-base current gain play a vital role to determine the characteristic of the transistor.

The common-emitter current gain is a ratio between collector current and base current. This is called Beta, denoted by ß, and more often than not ranges between 20 to 1000, however, the standard value is taken as 200.

• Similarly common-base current gain is a ratio between collector current and emitter current. It is called alpha, denoted by a, and its value mainly ranges between 0.95 to 0.99, however, most of the time its value is taken as unity.

S8050 Absolute Maximum Ratings

Following figure shows the absolute maximum ratings of S8050.  

• These are the stress ratings which if exceed from the absolute maximum ratings, can damage the device at large, which ultimately affect the project performance.

These ratings are determined on the basis of the maximum junction temperature of 150 °C.

• Additionally, if ratings are applied for a maximum period of time above normal operating conditions, they can affect the device reliability.

Applications

• This NPN transistor is mainly used for push-pull amplification.
• Some general purpose switching applications feature this transistor, aiming to control large current with a small current.

That’s all for now. I hope I have given you everything you needed to know about S8050. If you are unsure or have any question, you can ask me in the comment section below. I’d love to help you the best way I can. You are most welcome to keep us updated with your valuable suggestions, they help us provide you quality work. Thanks for reading the article.

Introduction to USB

Hey Everyone! Hope you are getting along with life pretty well. I always strive to keep your technical appetite filled with the recent and valuable development in engineering and technology. Today, I'll unravel the detailed Introduction to USB. The USB stands for Universal Serial Bus which is an industry standard mainly developed for laying out the communication between a computer and peripheral devices. The first USB was developed in 1996 by the collaborative effort of seven companies - DEC, Microsoft, Compaq, Nortel, IBM, Intel, and NEC

• The USB device not only helps in establishing a flawless communication but also assists to power up the connected peripheral devices, setting you free from the parallel ports and the external power chargers that turn out to be costly and cover more space.

The lastest USB 3.2 is introduced in 2017 with the maximum speed capability for communication - around 20 GBits/s which is quite adequate to transfer the data from the peripheral device to the computer with some remarkable pace. In this post, I'll cover each and everything related to USB, its main features, need of use, advantages and main applications. Let's dive right in.

Introduction to USB

The USB is an industry standard mainly developed for laying out the communication between a computer and peripheral devices.

• Additionally, unlike some traditional connector, USB doesn't require any user adjustable interface setting, it serves more like a plug and play device. You just need to connect the one end of the USB cable with a peripheral device and another end to the computer and start playing and controlling the peripheral device.

Communication between the devices is an essential part of the electronics. More often than not, the computer serves as a host with which the peripheral devices are connected. It is important to note that, it is impossible to connect the two peripheral devices using USB unless there is a separate host available that controls the communication and serves as the main handling device in the whole arrangement of communication between the peripheral devices.

• The USB is unable to handle multi-master arrangement and can support one host per bus. However, the "USB on the GO" is designed with the purpose, if there is no host available, two devices collaborate with each other to define, which one is appropriate to serve as a host in the whole protocol.

USB Pinout

Following figure shows the pinout of the Universal Serial Bus.   A number of USB connectors are available. The connector attached with the host (computer) or device is called male port or receptacle, and the connector coupled with the cable is called female jack or plug. There are 7 USB connectors introduced until now

• Standard-A Type
• Standard-B Type
• Mini-A
• Mini-B
• Micro-A
• Micro-B,
• Type-C

Standard A and B type come with 4 pins while Mini and Micro-USB interface is incorporated with total five pins where four pins work similar to the standard USB connectors and the additional pin is nothing but a device indicator. Following figure shows the pinout of USB Type C connector.   Type C connector is a new connector that stands out in terms of power capabilities as it comes with an ability to deliver 100 W which far larger than its standard predecessors that can deliver in a range between 2.5 to 5 W.

• It comes very handy in a variety of fast charging applications, as it features power delivery, video, audio, and data capability in a single package.

Pin Description

As mentioned above USB is a serial bus that is housed with 4 shielded wires where two are reserved for power (+5v & GND) while the other two are used for carrying differential data signals. They are marked as D+ and D- on the pinout given above and are transmitted on a twisted pair.

• The NRZI (Non-Return to Zero Invert) encoding scheme is mainly employed to send data with a sync field while ultimately helps in synchronizing the host and receiver clocks.

Note: The half-duplex differential signaling is used to brush off the effects of electromagnetic noise where long lines are a major concern.

Capability

A single USB bus can handle around 127 devices at a time. If you plan to connect more devices, you need to add another host to the arrangement.

• The earlier USB hosts came with two ports that were enough to control the peripherals devices at that time. However, with the invention of new devices and as all workload was shifted to computer technology, it ultimately put the burden and erupted the need for more ports incorporated into the USB hosts.

Recently the USB host comes with 4 or ports on a single interface, giving you the flexibility to connect more devices on the fly. At the start, the hosts were featured with only one USB controller, where both ports sharing the same bandwidth. However, as there came a surge in the requirement of bandwidth, multiple port cards were coupled with two controllers, giving you the ease of handling individual channels.

• The USB 1.1 comes with a maximum cable length of 5 meters that can easily support peripheral devices running at speed around 12 Mbit/s, however, it varies as the cable length differs i.e. cable length of around 3 meters is a good fit for devices running at a low speed of around 1.5 Mbit/s.

Similarly, USB 2.0 is an improvised version of the USB 1.1, supporting a maximum cable length of 5 meters with devices running at high speed 480 Mbit/s.

• The USB 3.0 is not reserved for specific cable length, however, the cables used under this standard must meet some electrical specifications i.e. the maximum practical length is 3 meters for copper cabling with AWG 26 wires.

USB Versions

A number of USB versions have been released until now with every new version disguising the features of its predecessors with some added speed and connection capability. Following table shows the list of USB versions introduced till date. You can see from the table, how USB speed capability has been modified over the years ranging from 1.5 Mbits/s to 20 Gbits/s. This is a huge shift indeed.

Architecture

The USB architecture is mainly based on tiered star topology that is identical to 10BASE-T Ethernet. The topology interface supports the need of hub as per requirements. Recently, some devices like Keyboard come with a USB hub and instead of directly connecting the mouse or any digital camera with a computer, you can connect them with the hub incorporated on the keyboard and use them similar as you connect them with the computer, as eventually the keyboard will be connected to the computer at the other end.   The tiered star topology comes with a number of advantages that put it ahead of using a daisy-chaining connection for the peripheral devices.

• It is incorporated with built-in protection interface that disconnects the connected device immediately in case it comes under the radar of sheer current - more than it can handle. You can use other devices as usual with the disconnection as it won't be affecting other devices in the whole arrangement.

The USB hub comes with an ability to support both low speed and high-speed devices. As the low-speed device is connected with the hub, it will automatically block the full speed transactions, making sure low-speed device doesn't come under the influence of the high-speed signals.

How does it Work

As the peripheral device is connected to a USB host, the enumeration process is activated which is nothing but the process of detecting, identifying and loading drivers for a USB device.

• It all gets triggered by sending a reset signal to the USB device. Once the connected device is reset, it is assigned a unique 7-bit address by the host.

The reset signaling plays a vital role in determining the data rate of the connected device. No or minimal operator action is involved during this whole process as the configuration starts immediately as you connect the peripheral device, automatically loading the required drivers for the communication between USB host and device.

Advantages

The USB comes with a number of advantages that make it an ideal choice for communication purpose. Yes, parallel and serial ports come handy in some PLC programming and computational purpose, but where communication is required with a decent pace that involves no human interference, USB grooves its way brilliantly. Following are some major advantages of USB over other means of communication.

• It is a user-friendly and common person with no technical skills can easily get benefit from the sheer advantages of USB protocol. And the flexible interface of USB sets you free from the hassle of using a plethora of connector and wires at the back of your PC, that may turn your working space into a lot of mess.

As you connect the USB peripheral device with the USB hub on the computer, it starts configuration automatically and strives to keep the device quite in line with the working environment of the host, giving you the prompt signal your connected device is ready to use for the required operation. ----- For example, when you connect your phone with the computer, it gets configured automatically. And some phones which don't get connected will give you the option, indicating you need to install the specific driver in order to control the cell phone from your computer.

• Recent computers come with USB hubs that can easily support 4,5 ports as per your needs. In case your requirements surpass the given ports, you can add external USB hubs to incorporate more ports into the computer.

Low cost and power consumption are remarkable features that make USB stay ahead of its counterparts. It mainly works on 5V with little power consumption around 500 mA for USB 2.0 and 2.5 mA for USB 3.0.

• As mentioned earlier, the USB comes with a built-in current protection interface that saves the host from going over current that can ultimately put the host in a total stall. The current protection feature blocks the current that gets beyond the recommended ratings.

Limitations

There are some limitations involving the use of USB in terms of bigger perspective. The USB cables are limited in length, making them vulnerable for their use in distant areas.

• You can benefit USB protocol on the same surface, covering less distance where whole arrangement for communication between the peripheral devices and computer is laid out in a single tabletop surface.

Similarly, the USB converters may not be working as expected with they are connected with some external devices for the transformation of bi-directional data.

• For example, the USB to parallel port converter supports connection with a printer, but it doesn't work properly with the scanner due to the absence of bi-directional data pins.

That's all for now. I hope I have given you everything you needed to know about USB. If you are unsure or have any question, you can comment me in the section below. I'd love to help you the best way I can. You are most welcome to keep us updated with your valuable suggestions, we shape our content strategy based on them, so keep them coming. Thanks for reading the article.

Introduction to CD4046

Hey Guys! Hope you are doing well. Welcome you onboard. Today, I'll discuss the detailed Introduction to CD4046 which is a Micropower Phase-Locked Loop (PLL) that comes with a common comparator input and a common signal input amplifier between a low-power linear voltage-controlled oscillator (VCO) and two different phase comparators. The phase locked loop, as the name suggests, is a loop where the phase of the output signal is compared with the phase of the input signal using a phase detector between two signals.

• Phase detector operates with the aim to adjust the two signal and make them quite in line with each other so they generate signals with the same magnitude.

In this tutorial, I'll walk you through the main details related to CD4046 by breaking down the whole nitty-gritty in simple steps, making it easy for you to grab the main concept. Let's jump right in.

Introduction to CD4046

CD4046 is a Micropower Phase-Locked Loop (PLL) that comes with a phase detector for comparing the phase of the output signal with the input signal and adjust them in order to make the matching signals from both ends.

• It comes with a common comparator input and a common signal input amplifier between a low-power linear voltage-controlled oscillator (VCO) and two different phase comparators.

The input signal can be operated in two ways: capacitively layered with a self-biasing amplifier for creating a small voltage signal or directly coupled for a large voltage signal.

• The VCO (Voltage Controlled Oscillator) is an integral part of the IC that mainly generates oscillated frequency based on the applied input. The generated frequency is then used for phase modulation.

The chip features two phase comparators i.e. Phase Comparator I and Phase Comparator II. They are also known as Phase Detectors. Phase comparator I is nothing but an exclusive OR gate that produces a digital, maintaining 90° phase shifts at the VCO.

• It is important to note that both signal input and comparator input are set at 50% duty cycle where Phase Comparator I can lock the input frequencies that match with the magnitude of the VCO center frequency.

Similarly, Phase comparator II is known as an edge-controlled digital memory network and maintains a 0° phase shift between signal input and comparator input, providing a lock-in and digital error signal.

CD4046 Features

Following table shows the main features of CD4046.

Number of Pins	16
Min Supply Voltage	3 V
Max Supply Voltage	18 V
Number of Phase Comparators	2
VCO linearity	1%
Power consumption	70 µW at VCO Frequency= 10 kHz and VDD = 5 V
Technology	CMOS Phase Locked Loop
Operating Temperature Range	-55 to 125 ºC

• These ratings will help you make a final decision before you intend to incorporate this device into the relevant project.

CD4046 Pinout

Following figure shows the pinout of CD4046.

• VSS represents the ground voltage while VDD represents the supply voltage.
• A 5.2-V Zener diode is added with the aim to supply regulation if required.

CD4046 Pin Configuration

Following table shows the pin configuration of each pin.

Pin#	Pin Name	Pin Description
1	Phase Pulse	Phase pulse applied to the IC
2	Phase Comp I Out	An output of Phase Comparator I
3	Comparator IN	Input at the Comparator
4	VCO OUT	Output Signal at VCO
5	INHIBIT	Allows to electronically turn on or off the output voltage power supply
6	C1A	Capacitor 1 connected to VCO
7	C1B	Capacitor 2 connected to VCO
8	VSS	Ground Pin
9	VCO IN	Input Signal at VCO
10	Demodulator OUT	Extracting the original signal
11	R1	Resistor 1 connected between VCO and Supply Voltage
12	R2	Resistor 2 connected between VCO and Supply Voltage
13	Phase Comp II OUT	Generated oscillated output at Phase II Comparator
14	Signal IN	Input Signal applied to the Phase Comparator I
15	Zener	5.2 V Zener diode for voltage regulation
16	VDD	Voltage supply pin

 

• I hope this configuration will help you understand the major functions associated with each pin on the chip.

Absolute Maximum Ratings

Following figure shows the absolute maximum ratings of CD4046.

• These are the stress ratings above which the device may stop working. Before you start your project, make sure your technical requirements match with the ratings of the device otherwise it may cause more damage than good.
• As mentioned above DC supply voltage ranges between -0.5 to 18, however it is advised to keep the DC supply between 3 to 15 V for better results, similarly recommended operating temperature range lies from -55 to 125 ºC.
• The ground voltage is zero unless specifically recommended by the manufacturer.

CD4046 Dimensions

Following figure shows the dimension of CD4046.

• The dimensions in the numerator are given in inches and dimensions appearing in the denominator are given in millimeters.
• It is a low weight tiny chip that can easily stand fit in the hard to reach places.

Applications

CD4046 comes with a variety of applications aiming to compare the output signals with the input signals and produce them with the same frequencies. Following are the major applications of CD4047.

• FSK modulation
• Voltage-to-frequency conversion
• Motor speed control
• FM demodulator and modulator
• Frequency discrimination
• Frequency synthesis and multiplication
• Tone decoding
• Data synchronization and conditioning

That's all for now. I'll be writing more tutorials on some basic components mainly used in engineering and technology. If you are unsure or have any question, you are most welcome to approach me in the section below. I'd love to help you the best way I can. Feel free to feed us with your valuable feedback and suggestion, so we keep producing quality content and you keep coming back for what we have to offer. Thanks for reading the article.

Introduction to 2n5415

Hi Friends! Hope you are getting along with life pretty well. Today, I'll uncover the detailed Introduction to 2n5415 which is a PNP transistor mainly used for general purpose low-power amplifying and switching applications. It comes with three layers: two P semiconductor layers and one doped N-layer where later is encapsulated between other two P-layers. There are two major types of transistor: Bipolar Junction Transistor and Unipolar Transistor. This transistor falls under the category of Bipolar Junction Transistor as it comes with two charge carriers i.e. electrons and holes where later are the major charge carriers in PNP transistors. In this post, I'll try to nail down everything related to 2n5415: its main features, working, and applications. Let's dive in and explore the nitty-gritty of this electronic component.

Introduction to 2n5415

2n5415 is a PNP transistor that is mainly used for general purpose low-power amplifying and switching applications.

• It operates on a general amplification principle where small current at one terminal is used to control large current at other two terminals.

The 2n5415 is incorporated with three terminals known as an emitter, base, and collector which are used for external connection with the electronic circuits.

• These terminals are different in terms of doping concentration and size where a base is lightly doped and is responsible for the transistor action as it controls the number of holes flowing from emitter to collector.

The emitter is highly doped and contains 100% transistor current which then distributes between base and collector.

• The collector terminal is moderately doped and comes in a bigger size as compared to the other two terminals. It is mainly used to collect the holes emitted from the base terminal.

As the voltage is applied at the base terminal, it gets biased and starts drawing little current which plays a vital role to control large current at the emitter and collector terminals.

• The base terminal voltage has a large influence on the output current obtained at the collector terminal. This process is used for amplification purpose.

The PNP transistor is a current controlled device, also known as sinking device, where it sinks current into its base terminal and current flows out of the collector.

2n5415 Pinout

Following figure shows the pinout of 2n5415. There are three main parts of the component 1. Emitter 2. Base 3. Collector

• Holes control the conductivity in this PNP transistor similar to electrons that control the conductivity in NPN transistors.
• In PNP transistor base is more negative as compared to emitter and collector.

2n5415 Circuit Diagram

Following figure shows the circuit diagram of 2n5415.

• As mentioned earlier, the emitter terminal is highly doped and comes with 100% transistor current i.e. emitter current is a sum of current at collector and base terminals.
• When the voltage is applied, holes are diffused through the base from the emitter in this PNP transistor which eventually collected by the collector.

• Most of the professionals prefer NPN transistor over PNP transistor for amplification purpose because they consider conduction carried out by the movement of electrons is more effective and suitable than conduction carried out by the movement of holes.

2n5415 Absolute Maximum Ratings

Following figure shows the absolute maximum ratings of 2n5415.

• These are the stress ratings which directly affect the execution of electronic circuit. If these stress ratings are exceeded from absolute maximum ratings, they can damage the device at large, ultimately affecting the overall nature and performance of the project.

Similarly, if these ratings are applied for the maximum period of time above normal operating conditions they can affect the reliability of the device.

• It is preferred to examine these ratings before placing the device in the circuit and make sure the device follows the same stress ratings as defined by the manufacturer.

Applications

• It is widely used in general purpose low-power amplifying circuits.
• Many switching applications are incorporated with this transistor.

That’s all for now. I hope I have given you valuable information regarding this PNP transistor. If you are unsure or have any question, you can ask me in the comment section below. I’d love to help you in any way I can. You are most welcome to keep us updated with your valuable feedback and suggestions, so we keep producing quality content and you keep coming back for what we have to offer. Thanks for reading the article.

Introduction to 1n4738a

Hi Guys! Hope you are doing well. I am back to give you nuggets of valuable information related to engineering and technology so you can excel and grow in your relevant field. Today, I'll unlock the detailed Introduction to 1n4738a. It is a zener diode that comes with high power rating and is mainly used in stabilizing and clipping circuits. The zener diode is slightly different from regular diode as former can conduct in both directions while later conducts in one direction only. It is available in double slug construction with corrosion resistant surfaces, helping to operate it under high temperature and pressure. I'll try to cover each and everything related to this diode, so you don't have to grapple your mind surfing the whole internet and find all the information in one place. Let's jump right in and get down to the nitty-gritty of 1n4738a.

Introduction to 1n4738a

1n4738a is a zener diode that comes with an ability to conduct in both directions. It is a high power device mainly used in stabilizing and clipping circuits.

• This zener diode features maximum lead temperature for soldering around 230 C. It comes with a zener voltage around 8.2 V and external leads are attached with the body, helping thru-hole mounting.

This zener diode is nothing but a p-n junction diode with current capability conducting in both directions i.e. forward direction and reverse direction, featuring very effective working characteristic with a power dissipation of around1300 mW.

• You can not make it work in a reverse biased condition unless reverse breakdown voltage is achieved before the normal device operation.

It is important to note that the voltage drop across the zener diode doesn’t change over a wide range of voltages, which makes it a valuable pick for voltage regulation applications.

1n4738a Working

This zener diode is similar to a normal diode when it operates in a forward biased condition. However, working in a reverse biased condition is a totally different story that will only take place when the reverse voltage reaches the breakdown voltage, making diode flow current from cathode to anode.

• When a wide range of applied voltage is applied, the corresponding current reaches to a maximum point and strive to stabilize itself after some time. This process will make the diode working as a voltage stabilizer.

The Voltage Breakdown state can be achieved in two ways: using Zener Breakdown Effect or Impact Ionization. These mechanisms start to happen at 5.5 V and don’t require different circuitry for a flawless working process.

• However, the temperature coefficient sets them apart from each other as Zener effect comes with a negative temperature coefficient while the impact ionization features a positive temperature coefficient. And both effects cancel each other at 5.5 V, helping zener diode to gain the stable and reliable state over a wide range of temperatures.

1n4738a Absolute Maximum Ratings

Following figure shows the absolute maximum ratings of 1n4738a.

• If stresses are exceeded above these absolute maximum ratings, they can damage the device.
• Similarly, if stresses are applied for the extended period of time, they can affect the device reliability.

Applications

This zener diode is widely used in consumer electronics. Following are the major applications it can be used for.

 As a Waveform Clipper

Zener diode serves as a waveform clipper when connected in series. In this case, it will clip the waveform from both ends of the cycle i.e. positive end and a negative end of the cycle. In zener diode, the signal we get at the output comes with some major voltage spikes. However, if diodes are connected in series, they impede the diode from producing spikes, eventually modifying the output signal with a smooth waveform.

As a Voltage Shifter

• Zener diode is widely used as a Voltage shifting device.
• As a voltage shifter, it strives to make both output and breakdown voltage equal in magnitude.

That’s all for now. I hope I have given you everything you needed to known about 1n4738a. If you are unsure or have any question, you can approach me in the comment section below. I’d love to help you the best way I can. You are most welcome to feed us with your valuable suggestions, they help us provide you quality work. Thanks for reading the article.

Introduction to 2sa1265

Hi Guys! Hope you are doing well. Welcome you onboard. Today, I'll unlock the detailed Introduction to 2sa1265 which is a PNP transistor mainly used for power amplifier applications and proves to be an ideal choice for 70W high fidelity audio frequency amplifier output stage applications. This PNP transistor falls under the category of Bipolar Junction Transistors where two charge carriers i.e. electrons and holes take part in the conduction process, however, holes are major charge carriers in the PNP transistors, unlike NPN transistors where electrons are the major charge carriers.

• BJTs are different than that unipolar transistors like JFETs as former is the current controlled device and later is a voltage controlled device. Both are used in different areas ranging from consumer electronics, industrial to commercial applications.

In this post, I'll try to cover some basic details related to 2sa1265, its main features, pinout, working, and applications. Let's jump right in.

Introduction to 2sa1265

2sa1265 is a PNP transistor mainly used for power amplifier applications. It is composed of three layers: two P doped layers and one N-doped layer which is sandwiched between the other two layers.

• This transistor contains three terminals known as an emitter, base, and collector. The base terminal is more negative than the rest of the terminals.

These terminals come in different size and doping concentration. The emitter terminal is highly doped and features 100% of the transistor current while the base terminal is lightly doped and controls the conduction inside the transistor. The collector terminal is moderately doped and is bigger in size than other terminals.

• The PNP transistor won't be conducting if there is no supply voltage at the base terminal, however, when a voltage is applied at the base terminal it draws current which is then used to control large current at other terminals.

It is important to note that, both NPN and PNP are used for amplification purpose but voltage polarities and current directions are reversed in both transistors i.e. in NPN transistor current flows from collector to emitter and in PNP transistor current flows from emitter to collector.

• The 2sa1265 PNP transistor comes with two PN junctions i.e. emitter-base junction and the collector-base junction where former is forward biased and later is reverse biased.

Under normal conditions, the PNP transistor comes with voltage drop out of 0.7 V, so the voltage at the base side must be 0.7 V less than the voltage at the emitter side for making emitter-base junction a forward biased.

2sa1265 Pinout

Following figure shows the pinout diagram of 2sa1265.

• In the case of PNP transistor, emitter voltage is much larger than collector voltage which is necessary for the transistor to conduct.
• The transistor turns on as a small current starts flowing from emitter to base terminal.

2sa1265 Circuit Diagram and Working

Following figure shows the circuit diagram of 2sa1265. When a voltage is applied at the base terminal, the majority of holes move from the emitter and get diffused into the base terminal, combining with the electrons.

• As the base is very thin and lightly doped it cannot hold the number of electrons for a maximum period of time, ultimately allowing the electrons flow from base to collector terminal.

In many amplification applications, NPN transistors are preferred over PNP transistors because conduction carried out by the movement of electrons is preferable over the conduction carried out by the movement of holes.

• Combination of PNP transistor with NPN transistor is widely employed for the development of the power amplifier circuits. Power B amplifiers are a great example of this amplifier circuits where both PNP and NPN transistors are joined together to produce a high amplification cycle.

2sa1265 Absolute Maximum Ratings

Following figure shows the absolute maximum ratings of 2sa1265.

• These are the stress ratings defined by the manufacturer. If you want the device to be running properly without any damage and undergoes a longer life, you must follow these operating conditions.
• If these ratings are provided for the larger amount of time than the normal operating condition, they can affect the device reliability which may cause more damage in the later stage once your electronic project has been executed.

Applications

• It is used in power amplifier applications.
• An ideal choice for 70W high fidelity audio frequency amplifier output stage applications.

That's all for now. I hope I have given you everything you needed to know about 2sa1265. If you are unsure or have any question, you can ask me in the comment section below. I'd love to help you according to the best of my knowledge. Thanks for reading the article.

Introduction to ULN2803

Hey Guys! Hope you are doing well. I always take pleasure to keep you updated with valuable information related to information and technology. Today, I'll discuss the detailed Introduction to ULN2803 which is a relay driver that comes with a high-voltage and high-current Darlington transistor array. In order to obtain higher current capability, the Darlington pairs are connected in a parallel configuration. The component is incorporated with eight NPN Darlington pairs, featuring high-voltage outputs with common-cathode clamp diodes that are directly related to switching inductive loads. Each Darlington pair features a decent amount of collector-current rating i.e. around 500 mA. You must have a look at ULN2003 which is almost similar to this IC but comes with 16 pins and can handle 7 relays at a time. In this post, I'll cover each and everything related to this driver IC: its main features, pinout, working, and applications. Let's dive in.

Introduction to ULN2803

ULN2803 is a high-voltage and high-current Darlington transistor array and is mainly used as a relay driver with an ability to handle 8 relays at a time. It comes with a collector-emitter voltage around 50 V and input voltage residing at 30 V.

• Before we move further, we must know what is Darlington transistor? It is commonly known as Darlington pair which is nothing but a combination of two bipolar transistors featuring a compound design and is connected back to back where current amplified by the first transistor is again amplified by the second one.

This shape delivers a much higher current gain as compared to each transistor taken separately. It works on the simple amplification principle happening in the regular transistor where a small base is used to make the pair switch for higher switching currents.

• This Darlington transistor mainly operates at 5V  and is based on TTL (Transistor-Transistor Logic) and CMOS (Complementary Metal Oxide Semi-Conductor).

The NPN transistors forming arrays are useful for both: interfacing between low logic level digital circuitry and achieving the higher current/voltage requirements in a wide range of applications including printer hammers, lamps, relays, consumer and industrial applications.

• The device shows open–collector outputs and freewheeling clamp diodes that turn out to be very handy for transient suppression.

ULN2803 Pinout

Following figure shows the pinout of ULN2803. It comes with 8 input pins and 8 output pins.

Pin Configuration

Pin number from 1 to 8 is a Channel 1 through 8 Darlington base input while pin number from 11 to 18 is Channel 1 through 8 Darlington base output. Similarly, 9 and 10 pins are ground and common cathode node (Vcc) respectively. It is important to note that common emitter is shared by all the channels. Following table shows the pin configuration of ULN2803.

ULN2803 Logic Diagram

Following figure shows the logic diagram of ULN2803. It is a visual representation and arrangement of how the diodes are connected in the component. Following figure shows the schematic diagram of each Darlington pair. You can see how the resistors and diodes are connected with each other. And the amplified output of one resistor is further amplified by the second resistor, giving a whopping amount of current gain which is difficult for the individual diode to achieve if incorporated separately.

ULN2803 Absolute Maximum Ratings

Following figure shows the absolute maximum rating of this component. These are the stress ratings which if exceed from absolute maximum ratings, can damage the device at large, ultimately affecting the overall nature and performance of the project.

• Similarly, if these ratings are applied for the maximum period of time above normal operating conditions they can affect the reliability of the device.

Steps and measurements taken in the early stages of your project can save you from the atrocities of spending more in case the electronic circuit gets affected.

• It is preferred to check these ratings before placing the device in the circuit and make sure these ratings are quite in line and match exactly as defined by the manufacturer.

Applications

ULN2803 comes with a variety of advantages with a common application as a relay driver. Following are some major applications of this Darlington array.

• LED display
• Hammer Drivers
• Motor driver circuits like DC Motors or Stepper Motors
• IP Camera
• Lamp Drivers
• Stepper Motors
• Logic Buffers
• Line Drivers
• HVAC Valve and LED Dot Matrix

This is all for today. I hope you have found this read valuable. If you have any question, you can approach me in the comment section below. I'd love to help you the best way I can. Your feedback and suggestions are a valuable asset for us. Based on them, we develop our content strategy, so keep them coming. Thanks for reading the article.