Welcome to the next tutorial of our Raspberry Pi programming course. Our previous tutorial taught us to configure our raspberry pi for voice control. We also discussed some methods of reducing vexing noises so that the voice command program understands you. However, in this lesson, we will learn how to tweet from Raspberry pi.
| Where To Buy? | ||||
|---|---|---|---|---|
| No. | Components | Distributor | Link To Buy | |
| 1 | Raspberry Pi 4 | Amazon | Buy Now | |
Assume you wish to add tweeting into a Raspberry Pi software you're developing. This article will show you how to build a Twitter app, get access privilege tokens, and post a tweet. On our Raspberry Pi, we'll make a simple program that tweets the result of the uptime command. This is a made-up example, but it demonstrates what is needed to tweet from a raspberry pi.
For this session, a repo has been set up. Because we'll be referring to code within the repository, cloning it will be helpful. You could use this program as a reference point for your programs or copy the components you need.
Let's start by installing git with the command below.
We're going to clone the repository into our current working directory now:
After that, change the directory into the repository.
The Twitter Application programming interface requires that all queries use OAuth for authentication. To access the Application programming interface, you must first create the authentication credentials. Four text strings make up these credentials:
If you're a Twitter account, go through the procedures below to get the keys, tokens, and secrets. If you don't have a Twitter account, you'll need to establish one first.
Visit Twitter's developer site to sign up for a new account. You must now select the Twitter subscriber in charge of this account. It's most likely going to be yourself or your company. This is how this page appears:
After that, Twitter asks you questions about whatever you want to utilize the developer's account, as seen below:
You must specify the developer account's username and whether it will be used for commercial or personal purposes.
Apps and not accounts have access to Twitter's authentication credentials. Every tool or program that uses Twitter's API qualifies as an app. To perform API calls, you must first register your application. Navigate to the Twitter applications page and click on the option to create an application to register the app.
The following details regarding your application and its aim must be provided:
Navigate to your Twitter applications page to generate the authentication credentials. This is how the Apps page looks:
The Details button for your app can be found here. After hitting this button, you'll be sent to the following page, on which you can obtain your credentials. You could generate and copy the keys to use in your code by selecting the Keys and Tokens tab:
Save the credentials after you've generated them to use them later in your code.
The following snippet can be used to test the credentials:
Ensure that the "Read, access, and write direct message" is ticked in the "Permissions" section.
Tweepy is a Library for python for utilizing the Twitter API, and it's included in the requirements.txt document, so all you have to do is:
Tweepy is a library that simplifies the Twitter application programming interface. Tweepy is a collection of functions and classes that mirror Twitter models and application programming interfaces, and it handles implementation details discreetly, such as:
If you didn't use Tweepy, you'd have to deal with low-level features like hypertext transfer protocol, data encoding, authorization, and speed limits. This may consume a lot of time and is subject to mistakes. Tweepy allows us to concentrate on the functionalities we wish to implement.
Tweepy can be used to access the Twitter application programming interface features. Let's have a simple example to see what we're talking about.
The example command below will download all of your tweets from your timeline and output each one to the console. Twitter mandates that all requests be authenticated using OAuth. Tweepy makes using OAuth simple for you. We'll need to establish an account for our application to get started. Build a new app, and when it's done, you should get your authentication token and secret. Keep these two with you at all times; you'll need them.
Next, create an instance of OAuthHandler. We enter our user token and secret, which we received in the previous line, into this:
If you're utilizing a callbacks uniform resource locators that need to be given dynamically in a web application, you will pass it in like this:
If the callback uniform resource locator isn't going to change, it's preferable to put it up as static on Twitter when creating your app.
Unlike basic authentication, we must first perform the OAuth "dance" before we can use the API. The steps below must be completed for this:
So, to start the dance, let's get our request token:
This call asks Twitter for a token and then provides the authorization uniform resource locator, to which the user should be redirected to approve us. Simply keeping our OAuthHandler object alive till the user returns is sufficient. In a web app, a callback will be used. As a result, the request token must be saved in the session because it will be required in the callback uniform resource locator request. A fictitious example of saving the request tokens in a session is as follows:
As a result, we can now redirect the visitor to the uniform resource locator returned by our authorization URL() function.
If it is a desktop program (or any other software that doesn't employ callbacks), we'll need to ask for the "verifier code" that Twitter will provide after they have authorized us. This verifying code is sent in the callback query from the Twitter account as a GET query argument in the URL within a web application.
The request token is then exchanged with an access token in the last phase. The access token is the "key" to the Twitter Application programming interface treasure chest. To obtain this token, we must perform the following steps:
It's good to keep the access token on hand if you need it later. It is not necessary to fetch it every time. Because Twitter does not currently expire tokens, they would become invalid only when the user revokes our application's access. Your application determines the location where you store the authentication token. Essentially, you must save two string values: secret and key:
You can save these in a database, a file, or wherever else your data is stored. To re-create an OAuthHandler using this cached access token, follow these steps:
Since we have an access token for our OAuthHandler, we can move on to the following step:
The application programming interface class gives you access to the Twitter RESTful API's entire methods. Each method can take different parameters and provide different results. The API methods are classified into the following groups:
These ways allow you to read mentions, tweets, and retweets on your timeline and any other public user's timeline.
These methods deal with tweet creation, retrieval, and retweeting. Tweepy is used in the following code to produce a tweet with specific text:
The functions in this group may be used to retrieve users using a filtering criterion, extract user data, and show followers for each user so long as the account is public.
This set of routines includes methods for following as well as unfollowing persons, requesting followers for a user, and displaying the profiles a user is following.
Using these methods, you may write and view your profile information. This code sample might be used to change your profile information, for example:
You can designate any twitter message as Liked or delete the Like tag if it has already been added using these API calls.
This collection of methods includes unblocking and blocking members and a list of blocked users. You can view the users you've blocked in the following way:
You may search tweets using these methods using language, text, and other filters. For instance, this code will return the ten latest public tweets in English that contain the term "Python":
This set of tools allows you to generate a list of the most recent developments for any place. Here's how to construct a list of worldwide hot issues, for example:
Streaming enables you to actively monitor tweets in real-time for those that meet particular criteria. This indicates the program waits for the latest tweet to be produced before processing it if no other tweets satisfy the requirements.
You must construct two objects to use streaming:
This is how you do it:
Most of the time, when we call an API method, we'll get a Tweepy class model object back. This will hold Twitter's data, which we can use in our program. The following code, for example, returns a user model:
The following are the model classes:
Let's assume you want to obtain a list of all the tweets that mention you, then like each one and follow the author. This is how we can go about doing it:
Since every tweet object given by the mentioned timeline() belongs to the Statuses class, you can use the following syntax:
Tweet.user property is also a user object. Follow() may add the author of that tweet to the list of individuals to follow. Using Tweepy models allows us to write concise and understandable code.
Maybe we can put a motion detector and a camera on our cat and tweet images of it. Alternatively, we could set up a temperature sensor and tweet some weather-appropriate status updates. We can also leave the repository unchanged and tweet the uptime command if we only want others to know our pi's load average.
You may take the Twitter presence to another level by creating your personal Twitter bots. You may use bots to automate content generation and other Twitter tasks. This may save time and provide a better user experience for your viewers. The Tweepy library hides numerous low-level Twitter application programming interface details, allowing you to concentrate on the logic behind your Twitter bots.
In this tutorial, we learned how to set up our tweeter app on our Raspberry pi. We also learned how to generate access tokens, set up our app's permissions, and send a tweet. However, In the following tutorial, we will learn how to print on a Raspberry pi.
| Where To Buy? | ||||
|---|---|---|---|---|
| No. | Components | Distributor | Link To Buy | |
| 1 | Breadboard | Amazon | Buy Now | |
| 2 | DC Motor | Amazon | Buy Now | |
| 3 | Jumper Wires | Amazon | Buy Now | |
| 4 | Raspberry Pi 4 | Amazon | Buy Now | |
Like the Amazon Echo, voice-activated gadgets are becoming increasingly popular, but you can also construct your own with a Raspberry, a cheap USB mic, and some appropriate software. Simply speaking to your Raspberry Pi will allow you to search YouTube, view websites, activate applications, and even answer inquiries.
Because the Raspberry Pi lacks a soundcard or audio port, this project requires a USB microphone or a camera with a built-in microphone. If your mic only has an audio jack, look for an affordable USB soundcard that connects to a USB port on one side and has a headphone and mic output on the other.
For the Raspberry Pi, there are various speech recognition programs. We're utilizing Steve Hickson's Pi AUI Toolkit for this project since it is powerful and straightforward to set up and operate. You may install a variety of programs using the Pi AUI Suite. The first question is whether or not the dependencies should be installed. These are the files that the Raspberry Pi requires to work with voice commands, so pick Yes, then press Enter to agree.
Following that, you'll be asked if you wish to download the PlayVideo software, which allows you to open and play video content using voice commands. If you select Y, you'll be prompted to enter the location of your media files, such as /home/pi/Videos. It's worth noting the upper-case letters are crucial in this scenario. The application will tell you if the route is incorrect.
Next, you'll be asked if you wish to download the Downloader application, which explores the internet for files and downloads them for you automatically. If you select Yes, you will be prompted to enter an address, port, password, and username. If you're not sure, press Return to choose the default settings in each scenario for now.
Install the Google Texts to Speech Service if you require your raspberry pi to read the contents of the text files. Since it communicates to Google servers to translate text into speech, the Raspberry Pi must be hooked up to the internet to utilize this service.
You'll require a google user account to install this. The installation requests your username—press Return after completing this step. The Google password is then requested. Return to the previous page and type this.
You may also use the installer to download Google Voice Commands. This makes use of Google's speech-to-text technology. To proceed, you must enter your Google login and password once again.
Regardless of whether you choose Google-specific software or not, the program will ask if you wish to download the YouTube scripts. These technologies allow you to say something like "play pi tutorial," An appropriate video clip will be played—press Return after typing a new welcome. You can also enable the silent flag to prevent the Raspberry Pi from responding verbally.
Lastly, the software installs the Voice command, which includes some of the more helpful scripts, such as the ability to deploy your internet browser by simply saying "internet."
Youtube: When you say "YouTube" followed by a title tag, a youtube clip of the first related YouTube clip appears. "I'm feeling lucky" is comparable to "I'm feeling lucky" on google. Say "YouTube" followed by the title of the video you want to watch, for example, "YouTube fluffy kittens."
Internet: Your internet browser is launched when you use the word "internet." Midori is the internet browser for Rpi by default, but you may alter that.
Download: When you say "download," followed by a search query, the Pirate Bay webpage searches for the files in demand. For instance, you can say "Download Into the badlands" to get the most current edition of the movie.
Play: This phrase utilizes the in-built media player to open an audio or video file. For instance, "Play football.mp4" would play the file "football.mp4" from the media directory you chose during setup, like /home/pi/movies.
Show me: When you say "show me," a directory of your choice appears. The command defaults to not going to a valid root directory, so you'll need to modify your configuration so that it points to one. For instance, show me==/Documents.
You'll be asked if you want the Voice command to set things up automatically. If an issue occurs at this point, run the following command to download and install the required software.
After installing the Voice command application, you may want to perform a few basic adjustments to the setup to fine-tune it. Execute the following command from your Raspberry Pi's Terminal or via SSH.
Following that, you'll be asked several yes/no questions. The first question is whether you wish to enable the continuous flag permanently. The Voice command application, in clear English, asks if you would want to listen to your voice commands constantly every time you launch it.
For the time being, choose Yes. After that, you'll be asked if you wish the Voice command application to set the verify flag permanently. If you select Y, the application will expect you to pronounce your keyword (the default setting is "Pi") before responding to requests.
If you like the RPi to monitor continually but not act on all words you say, this is a good option.
The next step asks if you wish to enable the ignore flag permanently. If Voice command receives a command that isn't expressly listed in the config file, it will try to find and launch a program from your installed apps. For example, if you say "leafpad," a notepad tool, the Voice command looks for it and starts it even if you don't tell it to.
This is a functionality that we would not recommend anyone to enable. Because you're using Voice command at the SuperUser level, there's a significant danger that you'll accidentally issue a command to the Raspberry Pi that will harm your files. If you wish to set up other programs to function with the Voice command, you can update the configuration file for each scenario.
The voice command afterward asks if you want to permanently enable the silence flag so that it doesn't respond verbally whenever you talk. As you see fit, select yes or no. After that, you'll be prompted to adjust the default voice recognition timeframe. If Pi is having problems hearing your commands, you should modify this.
If you select Yes, you'll be prompted to enter a number; this is the number of seconds that the Raspberry Pi will listen for a voice command; the default for RPI is 3. The application then allows you to customize your text-to-speech choices. Before you do this, make sure your volume is turned up. The application attempts to speak something and then asks if you heard it.
When the system receives your keyword, it responds with "Yes, sir?" as the default response. To modify this, select Yes in the following prompt, then enter your chosen response, for example, "Yes, ma'am?" Once you're finished, hit the enter key. The program will replay the assigned response to check that you are satisfied with the outcome.
Whenever the program receives an unidentified command, the method is the same as the default response. "Received the wrong command" is set as the default response, but you could still alter it to something more friendly by typing yes, then your desired response, like, "The command is not known."
You now have the option of configuring the voice recognition parameters. This will check to see if you have a suitable mic. The Pi will then ask you if you want it to test your sound threshold using the Voice command.
Check for background sound, then press Yes, then press enter key. It then requests you to say a command to ensure that it is using the correct audio device. Type Yes to have the application automatically select the appropriate audio threshold for your Rpi.
Lastly, the Raspberry Pi will ask if you wish to modify the default voice command term ("Pi"). After that, type Y and your new keyword, then press enter when you're finished.
After that, you'll be requested to say your keyword to acclimate the RPi to your voice. If everything looks good, press Y to finish the setup. Start with the fundamental commands outlined above when using the Voice command software.
Once you've mastered these commands, use the following line of code to exit the application and, if desired, change your config file.
The Raspberry Pi's technology is still a work-in-progress, so not everything you speak may be recognized by the program.
Stay near the mic and talk slowly and clearly to maximize your chances of being heard by the program if you still have difficulties understanding. Launch the terminal or log in through SSH to your Raspberry Pi and type the following command to access your audio settings to change your audio preferences.
Hit the F4 button on the keyboard to select audio input, then the F6 key to exit. Select your input device, the mic with the arrow up or down keys, then press Enter key. To change the mic's volume, push it up using the up-arrow key to maximum (100).
If your device isn't identified at all, it may require more current than a universal serial bus port on a Raspberry Pi can supply. A powered universal serial bus hub is the ideal solution for this.
If you have difficulty connecting after installing the Download application, please ensure that connection to The Pirate Bay site is not limited.
To download the files, you'll also require a BitTorrent application for your RPi, such as transmission. To install this, launch your terminal or access your RPi through SSH and type the following command:
The Transmission homepage has instructions about getting started and utilizing the application. You should always download files that have permission from the copyright holder.
Please remember that whatever you speak and any text documents you provide are transferred to Google servers for translation if you use Google text or speech Commands.
Google maintains that none of this information is kept on its servers. Even if this is the case, any data communicated through the worldwide web can be decrypted by any skilled third party or a hacker. Google, however, encrypts your connection to minimize the risk of this happening.
If you like this voice command tool, you might want the program to launch automatically every time the Rpi is powered on. If this is the case, launch the terminal from your RPi or access it via SSH and execute the command below:
The above command opens the script that controls which programs run whenever your Raspberry Pi is booted. By default, this script is doing nothing. Type the following line of code directly above the one reading exit 0:
To save any changes, use Ctrl+X, enter yes, and press enter key. At this point, you can restart the Raspberry Pi to ensure that it is working.
Launch your Rpi terminal, type the command below, and press enter to see a list of active processes.
Noise from air conditioners and heaters can damage your audio and make it impossible for the program to understand what you're saying. The only other alternative is to turn these systems off during recording unless the entire system is redesigned to be more acoustically friendly. However, upon listening to the audio, it becomes clear and annoying.
Computer hardware cooling fans are also sources of mechanical noise. These can be disabled manually and for a limited period. Besides that, try isolating the disturbance in another space or utilizing an isolation box as an alternative.
We learned how to configure our raspberry pi for voice control. We also looked at a few basic commands used to control the raspberry pi and the software used. However, In the following tutorial, we will learn how to tweet on Raspberry pi.
| Where To Buy? | ||||
|---|---|---|---|---|
| No. | Components | Distributor | Link To Buy | |
| 1 | Breadboard | Amazon | Buy Now | |
| 2 | Jumper Wires | Amazon | Buy Now | |
| 3 | Raspberry Pi 4 | Amazon | Buy Now | |
Connect button pushes to function calls using the Python gpiozero package and uses the Python dictionary data structure
For this project, you'll need some audio samples. On Raspbian, there are many audio files; however, playing them with Python can be challenging. You can, however, transform the audio files to a more simply used format for Python.
Please make a new folder and rename it because all of your project files will be saved in the new location.
Create a new folder named samples using the same technique as before in your new folder.
In /usr/share/sonic-pi/sample, you'll find a bunch of sample sounds. These sounds will be copied into the samples folder in the following phase.
Open the command window by selecting the icon in the upper left corner of your screen.
To transfer all items from one folder to another, execute the following lines:
You should now see all the .flac audio files inside the sample folder.
To use Python to play sound files, you must first convert them from .flac to .wav format.
Go to the sample folder inside a terminal.
FFmpeg is a software program that can quickly transcode video files on Raspberry Pi. This comes preloaded on the most recent Raspbian releases.
You may use this simple command to convert music or movie files format:
To transform an audio (.wav) to a mp3 format (.mp3), for example, type:
A batch operation is a process for processing or treating a large quantity of material. When creating modest amounts of goods, the batch operation is preferred. Because this procedure provides superior traceability and flexibility, it is highly prevalent in pharmaceutical and specialized chemical manufacturing.
It's simple to rename a file with bash. For example, you may use the mv command.
But what if you had a thousand files to rename?
When you run a script or a series of commands on several files, this is known as a batch operation.
The first step is to notify bash that you wish to work with all the files inside the folder.
The dollar symbol indicates that you're referring to f in this case. Finally, inform bash that you're finished.
If you press enter after each statement, bash will wait until you input done before running the loop; therefore, the command would appear as shown below:
You might also use a semi-colon to separate the instructions rather than pressing Return after every line.
The process of processing and analyzing strings is referred to as string manipulation. It entails several processes involving altering and processing strings to utilize and change their data.
That final command was meaningless, but batch operations can accomplish a lot more. You can use the following command to rename each file.
As a result, the $f percent.txt.MD syntax replaces all.txt strings with .md strings. Use the hash operator instead of the % sign to remove a string from the beginning rather than the end.
Write the following lines in your terminal. All .flac files will be converted to .wav files, and the old ones will be deleted.
Based on the Raspberry version you're using, it might take a couple of minutes.
All of the new.wav files will then be visible inside the sample folder.
After that, you'll begin writing Python code. You can do this with any code editor or IDE, but Mu is often an excellent option.
To play audio files, import and initialize the pygame library.
This file should be saved in the gpio-music-box directory.
Select four audio files to utilize in your composition, such as:
Then make an object which references an audio file. Give the file a different name. Consider the following case:
For the following three sounds, create labelled objects.
Because all of your audio files are in the sample folder, the path will be as follows:
Each audio object should be given a name, for example, cymbal:
This is how your program should appear:
Please make a backup of your code and execute it. Then use the .play() function inside the shell from the code editor to play the audio.
Ensure that the speaker is functional and the volume is cranked up if you don't hear anything.
Four pushbuttons will be required, each connected to a different GPIO pin.
There are 26 GPIO pins on a Raspberry Pi. You may use them to transmit on/off pulses to/from electrical components like Led, actuators, and switches.
The GPIO pins are laid out as below.
There are extra pins for 3.3 V, 5v, and Grounded connections and a number for each pin.
Another illustration of the pin placement may be seen here. It also displays some of the unique pins that are available as options.
A figure with a quick explanation is shown below.
One of the basic input components is a button.
Buttons come in various shapes and sizes, with two or four legs, for example. Flying wire is commonly used to link the two-leg variants to a control system. Four-legged buttons are usually put on a breadboard.
The illustrations below illustrate how to connect a Raspberry Pi to a button. Pin 17 is indeed the input in both scenarios.
The breadboard's negative rail may be connected to a single GND, allowing all pushbuttons to share the same grounded rail.
On the breadboard, attach the four buttons.
Connect each pushbutton to a GPIO pin with a specific number. You are free to select whatever pin you prefer, but you must recall its number.
Connect one Ground pin to the breadboard's neutral rail. Then connect one of each button's legs to this rail. Finally, connect the remaining buttons' legs to separate GPIO pins.
Here's a wiring schematic that may be of use. The extra legs of the pushbuttons are connected to Pin 4, pin 17, pin 27, and Pin 10 in this case.
A single pushbutton has been connected to pin 17 in the figure below.
The button may be used to invoke methods that don't need any arguments:
First, use Python language and the gpiozero library to configure the button.
The next step is to design a function with no parameters. This straightforward method prints the phrase Hello in the terminal.
Finally, build a function-calling trigger.
You can now see Hello displayed in the terminal each time that button is clicked.
You may make your function as complicated as you want it to be, and you can also call methods which are part of modules. In this case, hitting the button causes an LED in pin 4 to turn on.
The application should execute a function like drum.play() whenever the button is pushed.
However, brackets are not used when using an action (like a button push) to invoke a function
. The software must call that method whenever the button is pushed, not immediately. All you have to do is use drum.play in this situation.
First, establish one of the buttons. Ensure to replace the numbers from the example with the ones of the pins you've used.
Add the following line of code at the end of your script to play the audio whenever the button is pushed:
Push the button after running the software. If you don't hear the sound, double-check your button's connections.
Add code to the three remaining buttons to have them play their audio.
For the second button, you may use the code below.
Good code is clear, intelligible, tested, never overly convoluted, and does the task at hand.
You should be able to run your code with no issues. However, once you have a working prototype, it's typically a good practice to tidy up your code.
Subsequent stages are entirely optional. If you're satisfied with your writing, leave it alone. Follow the instructions on this page and make your code a little cleaner.
Instead of creating eight individual objects, you may keep your pushbutton objects and audio in a dictionary. These are, nonetheless, the seven characteristics of good code.
If you're writing one-time discard code that no one, including yourself, will have to see in the future, you may write in any way you like. However, the majority of useful software that has been produced has to be updated regularly.
The next important feature of excellent programming is scalability, or the capacity to expand with the demands of your organization. Scalability is primarily concerned with the code's efficiency. Scalable code doesn't always require frequent design changes to maintain performance and resolve various workloads.
Last-minute adjustments are unavoidable while developing software. It will be difficult to send new changes through if the code can not be rapidly and automatically tested.
Every piece of software that is built has a certain goal in mind. For persons familiar with the functionality, a code that adheres to its requirements is simple to understand. As a result, one important characteristic of excellent code is that it meets the functional requirements.
Mistakes and flaws are an inherent element of software development. You can't anticipate every conceivable manufacturing case, no matter how cautious you were during the design process. You should, however, shield your application against the negative effects of such situations.
This is an important feature of excellent coding. A reusable and sustainable code is extendable. You write code and double-check that it works as expected. Extensions and related advances can be added to the feature by modules that require it.
For every software application, reusable coding is essential and highly beneficial. It aids in the simplification of your source code and avoids redundancy. Reusable codes save time and are cheaper in the long term.
Learn how to create simple dictionaries and iterate over them by following the methods below.
First, establish a dictionary where the Buttons serve as keys and audio as values.
Whenever the pushbutton is pressed, you can loop through the dictionary to instruct the computer to play the audio:
We learned how to make a "music box" with buttons that play sounds depending on which button is pushed in this lesson. We also learnt how to interface our raspberry pi with buttons via the GPIO pins and wrote a python program to control the effects of pressing the buttons. In the following tutorial, we will learn how to perform a voice control on Raspberry pi.
Welcome to the next tutorial of our Raspberry Pi programming course. Our previous tutorial looked at how to Interface DS18B20 with Raspberry Pi 4. This tutorial will teach us how to create a time-lapse video with still images and understand how phototimer and FFmpeg work.
| Where To Buy? | ||||
|---|---|---|---|---|
| No. | Components | Distributor | Link To Buy | |
| 1 | Raspberry Pi 4 | Amazon | Buy Now | |
When photographing something over a lengthy period, "time-lapse" comes to mind. A video can be created by mixing the still photos. Plant development may be tracked with time-lapse movies, as can the changing of the seasons. They can also be utilized as low-resolution security cameras.
Cameras that can be used with the Raspberry Pi are a bit limited. A powered USB hub is required for most webcams that are compatible. For this post, we’ll be using a camera specifically made for the Raspberry Pi. The camera module can be plugged into a specified port on the Raspberry Pi. How to do it;
Shutting down the pi is recommended before adding a camera. A power button should be installed on Pi 4 so that you may shut down the device safely every time.
Slide the cord into the port by using an image as a guide. Finally, press down tabs, securing the cable to the motherboard.
Click on the main menu button, select Preferences, and then click Pi Configuration if you're using a monitor. Enable the camera by clicking on the Interfaces tab.
To continue, headless users must type the command below. Make sure the camera is turned on in Interfacing Options. Rebooting the Raspberry Pi will be required.
Individual stills are used to create time-lapse videos. We'll be using raspistill to acquire our time-lapse images. As part of the Raspberry Pi OS, you don't need to install anything extra. The are two way to record a time lapse:
Raspistill is a Linux-based software library that aims to make it easier for Linux users to use sophisticated camera systems. We can use open-source programs running on ARM processors to control the camera system with the Raspberry Pi. Almost all of the Broadcom GPU's proprietary code is bypassed, which customers have no access to.
It provides a C++ API to apps and operates at the base of configuring a camera and enabling the program to obtain image frames. Image buffers are stored in memory space and can be supplied to either video encoders (like H.264) or still image encoding algorithms like JPEG or PNG. raspistill, on the other hand, does not perform any image encoding or display operations directly.
An illustration of how to take time-lapse photography is shown in the following image.
In this case, the time-lapse capture was 10 seconds long. The Raspberry will wait for a total of 2000 milliseconds between each image. For 10 seconds, the Raspberry Pi will take a picture every two seconds.
The photos will be stored as .jpg files. This example uses the name "Pic" and a number that increases with each frame to identify each image. The final digit of percent 04d is a zero. Pic0000.jpg and Pic0001.jpg would be the names of the first two photographs, and so on. Change this value according to the requirements of your project.
Your time-lapse video needs to be put together once all of your photographs have been taken. FFmpeg is the tool we'll be utilizing to generate our timelapse video. The command to download the package is as follows:
Allow the installation to be complete before moving on. Using this command, you can create a finished video:
Pic%04d.jpg corresponds to the image filename you specified in the preceding section. If you have previously changed this name, please do so here. With the -r option, you can specify how many frames per second you want to record. When creating a time-lapse video, replace the phrase video-file with your name. Make sure to keep the .mp4 file extension.
A high-speed audio and video conversion tool that can also capture from a webcast source is included. On the fly, video resizing and sampling can also be done with high-grade polyphase filters.
A plain output URL specifies an indefinite number of outputs that FFmpeg can read from (standard files, piped streams, network streams, capturing devices, etc.), whereas the -i option specifies the number of input files. An output URL is encountered on the command-line interface that cannot be treated as an option.
Video/audio/subtitle/attachment/data streams can all be included in a single input or output URL. The container format may limit the quantity or type of stream used. The -map option can map input streams to output streams, either automatically or manually.
For options, input files must be referred to by their indices (0-based). It's not uncommon to have an infinite number of input files. Indexes are used to identify streams inside a file. As an illustration, the encoding 2:3 designates the third input file's fourth and final stream. In addition, check out the chapter on Stream specifiers.
A Python library named phototimer will be used to control the raspistill command-line that comes pre-installed on the Raspbian OS.
Using docker, you can develop, analyze, and publish apps in a short time. To run phototimer with Python installed, you'll need to use Docker with Raspbian Lite.
A new location does not necessitate an SSH login. The lapse of time will be restarted.
Download the Docker image, activate the camera interface, and start the container instead of executing a git clone on each device.
If you disconnect from the container, docker will keep track of the log information and will enable you to reconnect at any time.
We can easily set up docker with the following set of commands.
Download the docker file as a zip as shown below
Or use the terminal by copying the phototimer code as shown here:
If git isn't already installed, use the following command to add it:
By modifying the config.py file, you can change the time-appearance lapses and duration.
You will likely want to alter the default time-lapse settings so that they better fit your requirements, which start at 4 am and end at 8 pm.
For some reason, overall quality of 35/100 produces a substantially smaller image than one with a quality of 60-80/100. You can modify the file to determine how much space you'll need.
Depending on how your camera is positioned, the image may need to be flipped horizontally or vertically. True or False in each situation will have the same result.
To achieve a specific aspect ratio, you can change the height or width of the image in this way. The default setting is what I use.
The Docker container must be re-built and restarted every time you change your setup.
When docker does a build, it will construct an image from the current directory's code and a base image, like Debian.
The most crucial part is that the image we create right now contains everything our application might want.
For those just getting started, these are some helpful keyboard shortcuts and CLI commands:
The default time zone for the Docker container is UTC. If you're in a different time zone, you'll want to adjust your daylight savings time accordingly.
Docker can be configured to run in your current local time by adding the following additional option to the command:
As a result, the following is what a time-lapse in Texas, United States, might look like:
Below are some time-lapse images taken from the raspberry pi camera.
To save your photos to your laptop, follow these steps once you've captured a few pictures:
The ssh and SCP functions are included in Git for Windows, which may be installed on Windows.
You'll need a way to connect to your new rig when you're not near your wi-fi router if you plan on doing the same thing I did. There are a few ideas to get you started:
All Pi models allow networking via USB, and it is very straightforward to establish and will not interfere with the wi-fi network. You will have to bring a USB cord to each new site to directly change the Wireless SSID/password on the pi.
Plugging an SD card into your computer while on the road allows you to update your wi-fi configuration file easily, provided there is an SD card adapter nearby. The existing configuration will be replaced with this new one on the next reboot.
If you're comfortable with Linux, you can use hostapd to create your hotspot on the RPi. To connect to your Raspberry Pi, you'll need a computer with an Ethernet cable and a web browser.
Install your wi-fi Username and password and use that to start/stop timelapse capture and download files if you won't be using the rig outside your location.
The imported files should be in the correct order if you drag them onto the timeline after they've been imported, so be sure to do that. The crop factor should be set to "fill." Instead of 4.0 seconds, use 0.1 seconds for the showtime every frame.
It is often necessary to transfer documents between the Linux laptop to an industrial Raspberry Pi for testing purposes.
Occasionally, you'll need to transfer files or folders between your commercial Raspberry to your computer.
There is no longer a need for you to worry about transmitting files via email, pen drive, or any other method that takes up time. Automation and industry control can help you automate the process in this post.
As the name suggests, SCP refers to secure copy. This command-line application lets you securely transfer files and folders between two remote places, such as between your local computer and another computer or between your computer and another computer.
You may see SCP info by using the command below:
Using SCP, you can transfer files to the RPi in the quickest possible manner. There is a learning curve associated with this strategy for novice users, but you'll be glad you did once you get the hang of it.
You must activate ssh on your Raspberry Pi to use SCP.
A free program like Giphy can help you convert the videos to a GIF; however, this will lower the number of frames.
We learned how to use the Raspberry Pi to create a time-lapse animation in this lesson. In addition, we looked into the pi camera raspistill interface and used FFmpeg and phototimer to create a time-lapse. We also learnt how to interface our raspberry pi with our pc using ssh and transfer files between the two computers. The following tutorial will teach how to design and code a GPIO soundboard using raspberry pi 4.
This is the third tutorial in our Raspberry Pi programming course. In the previous chapter, we learned how to install Raspbian on our Raspberry Pi mini-computer. In this chapter, we'll learn how to use a VNC server to remotely control and see its desktop from our computer.
| Where To Buy? | ||||
|---|---|---|---|---|
| No. | Components | Distributor | Link To Buy | |
| 1 | Raspberry Pi 4 | Amazon | Buy Now | |
Computing over a network is known as "virtual network computing," or "VNC." To remotely control another computer, you can use this screen-sharing technology, which works on all major operating systems. As a result, a remote user can interact with a computer's display (screen, keyboard, and mouse) as if they were sitting right in front of it.
VNC takes advantage of the client/server concept. Rather than installing a VNC server on the distant device, users will instead use a VNC viewer or client on the device they wish to control. Use a tablet or a smartphone in place of one of the previously mentioned computers. As soon as a viewer and a server are connected, the server gives the viewer a screen copy of the computer on the other side of the world.
Thanks to the application, both the remote user and the connected user can see and control everything on the distant computer's screen using keyboard and mouse instructions from afar.
Other programs (referred to as "clients") can access the resources on a computer server. The server can provide services to one or more clients, such as data or resource sharing, in what is known as the "client-server model." The advantage of this strategy is that a single server can service many clients, while a single client can make use of several servers. A server will respond to a request from a client by sending back a response.
When a computer has VNC Server software installed, it can be accessed and controlled remotely from another device. The software makes it possible to stream the device's desktop to another computer running VNC Viewer. Once a connection is established, users using VNC Viewer can view exactly what a person seated in front of the remote computer sees (with permission).
A viewer is a piece of software that allows you to see the contents of a digital file in its entirety.
Remote control of local PCs and mobile devices is made possible through the usage of VNC Viewer. Using VNC Viewer software, a user can access and operate a machine from another place using a device such as a computer, tablet, or smartphone.
As a desktop sharing system, it delivers keystrokes, mouse clicks, and other input events to a remote computer running VNC Server so that you may control it from your mobile device once connected. It's as if you're sitting directly in front of the computer that you've accessed remotely.
VNC uses a protocol called remote framebuffer to share data between the client and server, which determines the type of data exchanged. Using this, clients can access and control another machine from afar. Because it's compatible with all windowing apps and systems, it may be used on any mainstream operating system, including Windows, macOS, Linux, and others.
User access to a computer's monitor, mouse and keyboard is provided via the RFB client or viewer (also known as a client). Framebuffer updates originate on the RFB server (as in the windowing system). A key goal of Remote Framebuffer is to run on a wide range of hardware and to simplify the process of building a client by requiring as little input from the client as possible.
File transmission, more advanced compression, and stricter security procedures have all been added to RFB since its inception as a basic protocol. When using VNC, clients and servers can agree on the appropriate RFB version to use, as well as the security and compression options that are supported by both parties. Cross-platform interoperability is made possible as a result of this.
There are times when you won't be able to use your Raspberry Pi. For instance, you might have forgotten about your Raspberry Pi while away, or it may be buried beneath your TV or other devices. Using Raspbian and the free VNC software, you can connect to your Raspberry Pi wirelessly from any other device running Raspbian. You have the option of connecting to the internet or to your home network.
Begin by ensuring that both computers involved are on the same local network.
Select Preferences > Raspberry Pi Configuration from the apps menu icon (raspberry) at the top-left of the screen.
The default password for Raspbian is 'raspberry,' which you should change right away. By clicking the Change Password option, you can set a new password. Select the Enabled radio button next to VNC on the Interfaces tab. OK when you're finished. Menu bar in upper right corner of screen has VNC button at end of menu bar VNC Server will be launched as soon as you click on it.
Note your Ip address for the next steps.
You can now link your Raspberry Pi to another computer. Instead of a Windows computer, you might use a Mac or Linux computer on the same network or even another Raspberry Pi.
With a web-based interface, VNC Viewer may be used on a variety of platforms including macOS, Linux, Android, and iOS. On the official website of realvnc, download VNC Viewer. To use the software, it must first be downloaded and then installed.
In the "Enter a VNC Server address or search" box of the VNC Viewer, enter the Raspberry Pi's IP address (the four numbers displayed in VNC Server). RETURN is all that is needed to disconnect when a connection is established. If an error message appears, press the Enter key to proceed.
For security reasons, you'll need to log in with your Raspberry Pi's username and password. To remember your password and access Raspbian, select ‘Forgot Password’ and then OK.
The Raspberry Pi window is shown on your windows computer. By dragging the mouse cursor around the screen, you can see the Raspberry Pi's mouse. Remote control of your Raspberry Pi is now possible thanks to this window.
When you hover your mouse over the top of the VNC Viewer window, a menu will appear. Enter The Full Screen option is located to the left of the Options and allows you to have the preview window take over your screen. Because your Raspberry Pi display may not be compatible with your PC display, choose Scale from the menu (such that it is set to Scale Automatically).
Your Raspberry Pi will provide you a desktop PC-like experience.
Close the VNC preview window and use the VNC Connect menu bar to get to the properties. You can end a session from the drop-down menu.
To access your Raspberry Pi's desktop, simply open VNC Viewer from the Address Book. To reopen the connection, simply double-click on the icon and select Properties from the context menu that appears.
Enter 'Raspberry Pi' in the Name field. This will give your screen a more personal touch. After that, select Options. Automatic is the default setting for Picture Quality on your camera. The lower the setting, the better; if you have a fast connection, the higher it should be.
Make sure to check out the "Experts" section at the bottom. In this section, you'll find configuration options for pretty about everything on your computer. You can change the False to True option in the Fullscreen drop down box. In VNC Viewer, you can preview your Raspberry Pi in full-screen mode. After you've made your options, click OK to keep them.
You may access your Raspberry Pi from anywhere in the world with a RealVNC account.
Verify your identity in the upper left corner of VNC Viewer when it has been opened. Sign up if you don’t have an account. Set up a password for your account. Keep your password at least eight characters long and difficult to decipher. There is a RealVNC home page that you will be taken to. Verify your email address and you're done setting up.
A single account must now be used to sign in to both of these applications.
You should be able to see the VNC Viewer Sign In window from the computer. Your Raspberry Pi must be running VNC Server before you can connect to the cloud.
Go back to the VNC Viewer application on your PC. In the Address Book area, you will find a Raspberry Pi Window, but you'll also notice a Team option immediately below it.
This account can be used from different networks and operates remotely.
Sending and receiving files is possible between the Pi and computer. We've created a new text file called test.txt in our Documents folder.
Connect to the Pi using VNC Viewer to send a file. An option to transfer files can be found in the VNC Viewer preview window's menu.
Sending files is as simple as clicking the Send Files button in the VNC Viewer's File Transfer window and the transfer will begin. Click Open after you've selected a file from your computer's file picker. On your Raspberry Pi's desktop, the file will be saved. The message "Download complete" will appear in the File Transfer window; close it.
With VNC Viewer, it is possible to download files from your Raspberry Pi's SD card. VNC Server icon can be found in the Raspbian menu bar by right-clicking it. Select File Transfer from the VNC Server drop-down option to open the File Transfer window.
Your Raspberry Pi can now be accessed remotely. The screen and keyboard can now be removed from your Raspberry Pi and left connected to the network. The PC connection will be waiting for you when you're ready.
Using your smartphone, you can also remotely connect to the Raspberry Pi. Download the VNC Viewer software from the app store, then, open your VNC Connect account and log in using your email address and password.
Your Raspberry Pi will be listed in the Team drop-down menu. Click it and input your Raspberry Pi's username and password.
On start up, you will have to go through the 'Control the computer' step. The 'How to control' window will open once you click Next. This screen shows you how to use movements like mouse clicks on the touchscreen. Start using Raspberry Pi from your phone by closing this window.
To move the cursor, make use of your smartphone's touchscreen. An on-screen keyboard can be accessed with a simple swipe of your finger on a key at the top of the app.
Even on your phone, you can now access your Raspberry Pi. Remote monitoring has never been easier.
When it comes to deploying new software and systems, there will always be some trepidation, and there is a lot of misinformation floating about that influences how people feel about doing so. However, this has the drawback of preventing individuals and organizations from reaping the full benefits of new technologies.
In this article, we'll debunk some of the most popular myths regarding VNC Connect, many of which can be traced back to VNC's open-source roots.
Because buying two keyboards, monitors, and mice for your computer and Raspberry Pi would be prohibitively expensive, VNC is a great option to gain access to your raspberry pi remotely. The two computers can be used at the same time, and you don't have to switch between them. So far, we've learned how to set up our mini-computer for VNC and how to establish a remote connection to the VNC viewer. Our first project will be to use Python to control the GPIO pins of a Raspberry Pi 4, which we will cover in the next topic.
| Where To Buy? | ||||
|---|---|---|---|---|
| No. | Components | Distributor | Link To Buy | |
| 1 | Raspberry Pi 4 | Amazon | Buy Now | |
The next step is to make sure you have your board and SD card. The Raspberry Pi has an operating system because it is a full computer. For those who prefer a GUI desktop experience, a headless mode is still an option. Most people use Raspbian, a Debian-based operating system tailored specifically for the Raspberry Pi. However, there are other options. An excellent starting point is this operating system, which is likely to support other Linux packages that you are already familiar with.
Other means to install and run an operating system on the Raspberry Pi are also available. The imager installer is the most convenient method. As long as you're familiar with the operating system ISO, you may download it to your SD card, format your SD card and mount the ISO, and then boot the Pi. Follow the imager installation option if that's all gibberish to you.
For this process, we will open our browser and navigate to the raspberry pi website and down to the software option, you will see a download for windows. This button allows you to download the imager for windows which in my case I am using. If you are using another operating system like mac and ubuntu there are also imagers for those particular operating systems.
The executable imager file will be downloaded to your computer as seen below.
This software allows us to flash our operating system into the micro-SD card which will be used in the mini-computer.
Connect the card reader with an sd card in it to your computer through USB or a regular card slot.
On your computer, navigate to the location you downloaded the imager software and run it. In windows just double-click on it and it should startup.
On the pi imager window, there are two options and when we click the choose storage, our SD card is detected since we plugged it into our pc.
If you have any other drive plugged into your pc, they will also appear on the window therefore be careful to select the right one otherwise you will override the wrong drive and lose your saved files.
We will click on the other button "choose os" that is on the pi imager window to select the operating system we want to flash into our SD card. You will see different types of operating systems available for installation and we will go ahead and select the 32-bit raspberry pi os.
Once all the required parameters are set, i.e., the os and storage, go ahead and click the write button. The flashing process begins and it takes a minimum of 5 minutes to complete.
NOOBS (New Out of the Box Software) is an automated installer provided by the Pi Foundation, but for this article, we're going to forego it for now.
To complete numerous projects, it is a good idea for you to learn about "flashing" the SD card yourself. Despite NOOBS's reputation as a beginner's tool, I found this one to be easier to use.
You'll need an image file and an application to put it to your SD card to install an operating system. However, you can use any operating system of your choice for this guide. For example LibreELEC for a media box; RetroPie for retro gaming; and so on.
Because it's accessible for Windows, macOS, and Linux, Etcher is my go-to tool for writing to the SD card. There may be partitions that aren't visible in Windows, but these may be cleaned out with diskpart if you've previously used the SD card in a Pi.)
The full Raspbian image with suggested software is what I'm running, so go ahead and download it if that's what your Pi model calls for. It will either be an IMG file or an IMG compressed into a ZIP file (which you don't have to do if you're using Etcher).
It's as simple as opening Etcher and clicking the Select Image button to select your downloaded file. Flash your SD card by selecting it as the target. Selecting a destination drive should only be done with extreme caution, as the operation will wipe whatever disk you select.
Once the SD card has been ejected, you can insert it into your Pi, connect the HDMI wire to a display or TV, and turn on the Pi by plugging it into the wall. Once you've landed on the Raspbian desktop, you can begin fiddling with your Wi-Fi and software installations with apt.
Now that flashing is complete, with the pi powered off, we will go ahead and eject the storage SD from the pc and put it back to the raspberry pi SD slot. Then we will go ahead and plug the power cord back in and our mini computer should start. If you mouse, keyboard and screen go ahead in the previous tutorial and see how they are connected since they are necessary for this step.
The mini-computer boots up into the os and you will find a window with instructions on what to do. Follow through the graphical user interface, provide a password, location, screen, and Wi-Fi connection.
Then go ahead and install updates and the raspberry pi will reboot. A couple of issues will be solved when it boots up such as window dimensions and resolution.
We will do some more configurations in the terminal, therefore go ahead and start the terminal.
Preferences on the menu can be found in the Configuration tool, which enables you to change most of your Pi's settings, including the password.
Several options are available, as illustrated in the screenshots below. We'll enable vnc and ssh for the time being. The Raspberry Pi's fundamental system settings can be modified in this area.
It's a good idea to change the factory default "raspberry" password for the pi user. When your Raspberry Pi boots up, choose between using Desktop or CLI (command line interface), and enable Auto Login.
You can set your Raspberry Pi to wait until a network connection is available before starting up, by selecting network at boot.
You can choose whether or not your Raspberry Pi boots up with a splash screen.
There are numerous ways to connect your Raspberry Pi to other devices and components. For your Raspberry Pi to recognize that a specific type of connection has been made to it, you must use the Interfaces tab to enable or disable the various connections.
To use the camera on the Raspberry Pi, you must first enable it.
A Raspberry Pi can be accessed remotely through SSH or VNC.
To enable the SPI, I2C, and Serial (Rx, Tx) GPIO pins, go to the SPI menu. To enable the 1-Wire GPIO pins, go to the 1-Wire menu. To enable the 1-Wire GPIO pin, go to the 1-Wire menu. To enable Remote GPIO, go to the Remote GPIO menu.
We can alter the performance settings of our Raspberry Pi on this tab if we need to do so for any specific project.
Caution: Changing the performance parameters on your Raspberry Pi could cause it to behave strangely or stop working altogether.
If you want to boost your computer's performance, you can overclock the CPU and adjust its voltage.
This enables you to customize your Raspberry Pi's settings based on where you live.
To configure your Raspberry Pi's locale, select the language, nation, and character set you want to use.
For example, you may want to change your time zone, or you may want to switch to a different type of keyboard layout.
Go ahead and finalize the configuration and reboot now that you've completed the setup.
You don't need much more than a remote desktop program and the IP address of your Raspberry Pi to get started.
Open Remote Desktop Connection on your Windows computer to get started. The app will appear as seen in the image below.
In the "Computer:" field, type in the local IP address of your Raspberry Pi (1.), and then click the "Connect" button (2.).
Enter the account's "username" and "password" from your Raspberry Pi.
If you're logging in as the default pi user, your username and password should be "pi" and "raspberry," respectively.
Have trouble connecting to the Raspberry Pi? Double-check that your IP address is accurate. TeamViewer or TightVNC are two other options.
I hope you can now access the Raspberry Pi's remote desktop using the tool of your choice.
Python will be installed on your Raspberry Pi, and you'll see how simple it is to do so. This can be accomplished in a few simple steps thanks to Python's default package repository.
Thonny, a Python IDE, is pre-installed on desktop versions of Raspberry Pi OS. It is much easier, faster, and more pleasant to write code when using an IDE. Open Thonny on your Raspberry Pi, and then learn a little bit of Python in the process.
The toolbar is located at the very top of the screen. All the buttons you'll ever need to work with the editor are right here. The "Save" and "Run" buttons are the only ones you'll need (1.)
It's time for the center box. All of your Python code can be written here. (2.)
Finally, the Python shell is at the bottom. You can use this to directly communicate with Python. The output of your code can also be found here (3.).
You should now have a better understanding of how to get started with Python on your Raspberry Pi. This instruction explains how to install the Raspbian operating system, configure its interface, and install the Python interpreter with a few basic command lines. On the Raspberry Pi, we also demonstrated how to start a Python code editor to develop code.
to our new beginner’s course on Raspberry Pi. This course is appropriate for anyone using either a traditional Raspberry Pi board or the new Raspberry Pi 400 board that includes an integrated keyboard and display. Learning how to code, building robots, and doing plenty of other strange and exciting things are all possible with this low-cost computer setup. The Raspberry Pi can do everything a computer can do, from surfing the web to viewing movies and music, and playing video games.
Raspberry Pi is much more than a modern computer. It`s created to educate young people on how to program in languages such as Scratch and Python, and it comes with all of the major programming languages pre-installed. The world is in desperate need of programmers now more than ever, and Raspberry Pi has sparked a new generation's interest in computer science and technology. Raspberry Pi is used by people of all ages to build intriguing projects ranging from old-school gaming systems to internet-connected weather equipment.
| Where To Buy? | ||||
|---|---|---|---|---|
| No. | Components | Distributor | Link To Buy | |
| 1 | Raspberry Pi 4 | Amazon | Buy Now | |
In this course, we'll learn how to make games, build robots, or hack all kinds of fantastic projects. The Raspberry Pi 4 Model B will be covered in this course. In the event that you're working with a different model of Raspberry Pi, don't be worried. whatever is taught here can be applied to any other model in the family.
It is a small computer about the size of a credit card that can run the Linux operating system. It uses a "system on a chip," which combines the CPU, GPU, RAM, USB ports, and other components into a single chip.
To distinguish it from traditional computers that conceal their internal components behind a casing, the Raspberry Pi's ports and functions are fully exposed, a protective case is available to buy. If you want to know how different computer components work and where to put the various peripherals, this is a great resource.
All Raspberry Pi models share one feature in common:
Now you've got a little machine that runs a lot of free software, so that's good. Exactly what can you do with it? Fortunately, I've got a simple and fun Python project that I used to teach middle school children in a coding lesson.
The Raspberry Pi features a number of parts that can be used to control the Raspberry Pi as well as other devices. The following ports will be available on your Raspberry Pi:
The majority of the Raspberry Pi's system resides on an integrated circuit, which is what the term "system-on-chip" refers to. Included in this is the CPU, which is referred to as a computer's 'brain,' as well as the graphics processing unit (GPU).
A brain is useless without memory, therefore you'll notice another chip to the side of the SoC, tiny and black plastic, like a cube where RAM is located. When you're working on a Raspberry Pi, the RAM stores your work; it's only when you save it to the microSD card that it's written to the microSD card. The volatile and non-volatile memories of the Raspberry Pi are made up of these components. When the Raspberry Pi is turned off, the volatile RAM loses its contents, however, the non-volatile microSD card retains them.
A metallic lid covers the Raspberry Pi's radio component, which allows it to communicate wirelessly with other devices. In actuality, the radio has two main functions. Wi-Fi and Bluetooth are built-in, so you can use them to communicate with your computer and other nearby smart devices, sensors or cellphones.
Just behind the middle row of USB ports, an additional black, plastic-covered chip is seen towards the board's bottom border. The USB controller manages the four USB ports. The network controller is positioned next to this chip. An integrated circuit (PMIC) is also located on the upper left side of this board. It is in charge of converting power from a USB port to the precise voltage that the Raspberry Pi needs.
The circuit board contains a variety of ports, beginning with four ports in the right side of the bottom edge. You can connect any USB-compatible device to your Raspberry Pi using these ports, including keyboards, mice, digital cameras, and flash drives. One of the two types of USB ports is a USB 2.0 port, which uses version two of the USB standard; the other is a USB 3.0 port, which uses version three.
There is an Ethernet port. Using an RJ45 cable, a Raspberry Pi can be linked with a wired computer network via this port. You'll notice two LEDs at the bottom, which indicate the connection is operational.
There is a 3.5 mm audio-visual jack. Connecting to amplified speakers rather than headphone jacks improves sound quality, but the headphone jack can still be used. Audio and video signals can be transmitted using the TRRS (tip-ring-ring-sleeve) adapter, which connects the 3.5 mm AV jack with projectors, tv, and other displays that can receive composite video signals.
The camera serial interface (CSI), or camera connector, as it is most commonly called, is located above the AV jack and has a strange-looking plastic flap that may be pulled up (CSI). This allows you to connect a camera, which you'll learn later in this course.
There are two micro HDMI connections available, which are a scaled-down version of the connectors seen on gaming consoles, set-top boxes, and televisions. Multimedia denotes that it can transport both audio and video information, and high-definition indicates that the quality will be excellent. A computer monitor, television, or projector will be needed to connect the Raspberry Pi to these adapters.
The port above the HDMI ports is where you'll plug in the Raspberry Pi's power supply. USB Type-C ports can be found on smartphones, tablets, and other mobile devices. Instead of a standard mobile charger, employ the certified Raspberry Pi USB Type-C Power Supply for the best results.
There is a strange-looking connector at the top of the board, which appears to be the camera connector at first sight, but it's not. It is for usage with a Raspberry Pi Touch Display.
In two rows of 20 pins each, you'll find 40 metal pins along the right edge of the board. To communicate with peripherals such as LEDs and buttons to temperature sensors, joysticks, and pulse rate monitors, the Raspberry Pi includes a function known as GPIO (general-purpose input/output).
The Raspberry Pi has one more port, the micro-SD connector, which is on the other side of the circuit board. The MicroSD card is inserted here and you'll find all the files you've saved and installed as well as the operating system that makes your Raspberry Pi work.
Unfortunately, the Raspberry Pi lacks the ability to run either Macintosh or Windows. Instead, it uses Raspbian, a Linux distribution. Installing Raspbian on your own micro-SD card is also possible using the NOOBS installation. You'll see this loading screen when you insert in the microSD card with Raspbian installed and turn on the Raspberry Pi.
As you've seen, the desktop on your huge PC looks exactly like the one you are used to. A web browser, terminal, picture viewer, calculator, and a slew of other tools are all included by default.
The Raspberry Pi is the heart of your project, but without a power supply or storage, it won't be able to go very far. To get started, you'll need the following:
The power supply standard for the Raspberry Pi 4 has been upgraded from microUSB to USB-C, which is an improvement. Powering your Raspberry Pi is best done with a dedicated power adapter from the Raspberry Pi Foundation.
The later Pi models use microSD cards instead of the normal SD cards that were used in the original Pi models A and B. However, not all SD cards function correctly, therefore it's preferable to acquire a pre-loaded operating system with the original Raspberry Pi microSD card or a tested suitable card, such as the SanDisk Ultra 32GB.
This is technically optional, but we strongly advise it. It is a good idea to use a case to protect your bare board rather than leaving it exposed. The FLIRC case has a built-in heatsink, making it an excellent choice for older models of the Raspberry Pi.
You can control your Raspberry Pi using a keyboard and a mouse. Raspberry Pi can utilize almost any USB-connected keyboard and mouse, wired or wireless. However, don`t use 'gaming' keyboards with flashing lights since they consume too much power to be used successfully.
USB gamepads are also necessary when you are building consoles like a gaming rig, therefore, don't forget about them.
We are now going to set up our minicomputer therefore follow these simple steps to get yours up and running:
Congratulations! You've successfully assembled your Raspberry Pi! I hope you have something like this:
At this point in the course, we've learned about the Raspberry Pi computer and what each component does. Our minicomputer has now been set up, and in the next tutorial, we'll learn how to use the python programming language with the Raspbian operating system.
Welcome to the next lesson of our python programming class. In the last session, we looked at the use of If-else statements and created simple programs to demonstrate the concept. While loops are another type of conditional statement, and in this tutorial, we'll look at how they're used.
In this article, you'll learn how to prematurely exit a while loop, a Python control structure for endless iteration. You will also learn how to write conditions in a single line to produce short and readable code.
The term "iteration" refers to the practice of repeatedly running the same piece of code. A loop is a type of programming structure that implements iteration.
Both indefinite and definite iterations are recognized as valid programming constructs. Infinite iteration doesn't specify how many times the loop will be executed. As long as a condition is met, the chosen block will be executed again. An iteration that uses a definite iteration specifies how many times it will run the selected block.
While Loops are used to iterate over the same code block for an unlimited couple of iterations until a condition is met.
While Loops are used to repeat the same code block indefinitely until a condition is met, if a given Boolean condition is completed at the end of the block, the "do while" loop will continue to run a provided block of code, or it will not.
Only one statement is required for the Do While Loop to terminate. However, the While loop may terminate with no statements executed, while the While loop may terminate with statements executed.
This type of control flow statement specifies iteration, allowing the code to be executed again and again. When we know how many times we want to run a code section, a for loop comes in handy.
Here, we'll explore how the Python while statement can be used to build loops. We'll begin with a simple design and gradually add to it.
Listed below is a basic while loop's structure:
Block denotes an execution block that will be repeated over and over again. As with an if statement, this is indicated by indentation.
Indentation is used to define blocks in all Python control structures. See the previous tutorial on grouping statements for a refresher.
In the controlling expression, expr, variables are initialized and updated during the loop's execution.
In this case, the expr parameter is evaluated first in a Boolean context. If this is true, then the loop's body is run. The body is executed when the expression returns to true. The program moves to the topmost statement following the loop body if the condition in expr is false.
Take a look at the following loop:
This is what we're seeing in this case. n starts as five. The loop body is run because n > 0 is true. n is greater than 0. Line 3 of the loop body prints the value of n after decreasing by 1 to 4 places.
The expression is re-evaluated from the top of the loop after the loop's body has completed. Because it's still true, the code in the body runs once again, printing 3 on the screen.
It goes on like this until n equals zero. That is when the expression is tested, and the loop is broken. The program would typically restart execution from the top most statement following the loop's body, but there isn't one here.
It's worth noting that the controlling expression of the while loop is tested first. If the loop body is false at the start, it will never be executed:
Because of this, n is set to zero when the loop is encountered. There is no need for the loop body because the controlling statement n > 0 is false.
Below is another while loop that doesn't use the numeric comparison:
Lists evaluated in a Boolean context are either truthy or false, depending on whether or not they contain elements. As long as there are elements in it, a is true. The loop terminates when the list is empty and all items have been deleted using the pop () method.
The whole body of the while loop is executed each time it is executed. Python has two keywords, break and continue, to prevent a loop from repeating itself.
This statement breaks a loop completely and immediately in Python. Python performs the next statement in the program after the loop body, which ends the current loop iteration. As soon as an expression is evaluated, it is evaluated again to see if the loop will continue or end.
The following diagram illustrates the difference between the statements "break" and "continue":
Break.py is a Python script that demonstrates the use of the 'break' statement:
Using a command-line interpreter to run break.py yields the following results:
The break code is executed when n reaches the value of 2.0. Execution immediately moves to the print () call on line 7 after complete termination of the loop.
A continue statement replaces the break in the next script, continue.py.
The output is something like this:
When n is 2, the loop is terminated by the continue statement. Thus, the number 2 is omitted. The condition is re-evaluated at the top of the loop, and it is still true. As before, the loop terminates when n equals 0.
While loops in Python can have an optional else condition at the end. Unlike most other programming languages, Python has this unique functionality. Syntax in the form of a diagram:
The other clause's further statements will execute when the while loop completes, as shown in this example.
You may be wondering, "How is that useful?" at this point. After the while loop, you could insert the following statements directly after it:
Additional statements will be run regardless of whether or not the while loop is terminated.
An else condition will only execute if the loop stops "by exhaustion"—that is until the controlling condition is false; otherwise, no subsequent statements will be executed. If a break statement is used to break the loop, the else condition is not executed.
Think about the following scenario:
Variable n becomes 0, and therefore n > 0 became false. The loop's block runs until the condition is exhausted. The else clause is executed since the loop is allowed to run its course.
Consider the following example to see the difference:
The else condition is not executed because the loop is prematurely interrupted by the break.
The term else may appear to have a different meaning in the while loop then it does in the if statement. In order to make it more understandable, you may try one of the following:
You are free to disregard either of these interpretations if you don't find them helpful.
If you need to find a certain item on a list, this is a common scenario. If the item is discovered, you can use the break to leave the loop. Also, else condition can contain code to be run if the item is not found:
Assume you've written an infinite while loop. This may sound weird, right?
As an illustration, consider the following:
Ctrl+C, a keyboard interrupt, was used to end this code. There was no way this could have ended. The vertical ellipsis represented in this output has taken the place of several output lines that were omitted.
We're all going to be in a lot of trouble if True can ever be false. On the other hand, False creates an infinite loop that might conceivably run indefinitely.
However, this is a typical pattern, and it may not sound like something you would want to do. Code for a service that accepts service requests and operates indefinitely is a good example. In this situation, "forever" implies until you turn it off or the universe reaches the point of no return.
Alternatively, keep in mind that the break statement can be used to exit a loop. Instead of evaluating a condition at the top, conditions recognized within the loop body may make it easier to terminate the loop.
If you'd rather, you can use pop () to delete each item in the list in turn, as illustrated above:
Not a is true when a is empty, and the break statement terminates the loop.
Multiple break statements can be specified in a loop:
Breaking out of the loop at various points rather than trying to define every possible termination condition in the loop header is often preferable in situations like this.
Infinite loops can be convenient in some circumstances. It's important to remember that the loop must be stopped sometimes, or it will become limitless.
Generally, it is possible to nest Python control structures inside one another. Nested conditional statements, for example, are possible: if/elif/else.
The following code shows how a while loop can be nested inside of another while loop:
Nested loops are affected by statements like "break" or "continue" since they are nested within each other.
Loops can be nested in and out of the if/elif/else statements and the other way around.
All Python control structures can be mixed and matched to your heart's content. That is precisely how it should be. You can only nest while loops a maximum of four deep, which would be unpleasant if there were unforeseen constraints like these: 'A while loop cannot be embedded within an if statement.' Trying to recall them all would be nearly impossible.
Poor programming language design is evidenced by the presence of seemingly random numerical or logical constraints. Python, fortunately, does not have any.
You can specify a while loop in the same way you do an if statement: on a single line. If the loop body has many statements, semicolons (;) can be used to divide them:
To be clear, this technique only works with simple declarative. Compound statements cannot be combined in a single line. As a result, you can write an if statement on the same line as a while loop:
You can also do this:
Note that PEP 8 forbids the use of numerous assertions on a single line. "Since this is a bad idea anyway, you generally shouldn't do it too often.
The Python while loop was used in this tutorial to demonstrate indefinite iteration. You can now create sophisticated and straightforward while loops, thanks to the knowledge you've gained thus far. The else clause can be used in conjunction with a while loop to handle endless loops. If you've followed along, you should understand how to run the same code repeatedly. The next lesson will cover iteration with for loops with an explicit limit on the number of iterations.
Welcome to the fifteenth chapter of this python course. Python lists and tuples were studied extensively in the last session, and we learned how to manipulate the data contained in these types of structures. You've only experienced sequential execution up to this point, where each statement is performed sequentially in the order they appear in the code.
However, the real world is frequently more nuanced. Sometimes, a program must skip over certain statements, run a set of statements repetitively, or pick between other sets of statements to execute. This is called "conditional branching."
That's when control structures come into play, which controls the sequence in which statements in a program are executed.
The if statement is the first control structure you'll encounter in Python.
Real-world situations frequently need us to examine the information around us and then make a decision based on what we've observed. As an illustration;
Unless it's raining, I'll be mowing the yard. It's correct to say that if it's pouring or snowing, I won't be mowing the lawn.
This type of decision-making is performed in Python programs using the if statement. If an expression has a certain value, and that value is known, a statement or set of statements can be executed.
Let`s get started.
We'll begin with the simplest form of an if statement. This is how it appears in its most basic form:
As you can see:
Execution of the statement occurs when the expression evaluates to a "truthy" value. No action takes place if expr is false. You must include a colon (:) after expr. Python does not require the parentheses around expr, as some other programming languages do.
This type of if statement is used in a variety of ways:
There is no effect on pressing Enter key after you have typed the print('yes') expression when using these examples interactively in a REPL session. There are multiple lines in this command. You must press Enter a second time to complete it. Executing a script file doesn't necessitate the use of an extra newline.
Suppose, on the other hand, that you wish to assess a condition and then take many actions if it is true:
There is only one 'statement' in each of the cases above, as demonstrated. It's necessary to be able to express "Do this if [expr] is true."
Syntactic devices, which bring together several statements into a single compound statement or block, are the most common technique employed by most programming languages. Syntactically, a block is considered to be a single entity. Explanation: All statements in the block are performed when it is an "if" target and "expr" is true. None of them are true if expr is false.
It is possible to define blocks in virtually all programming languages, however, this is not always possible. Let's have a look at Python's approach.
You may have heard the offside rule in football, right? Well, in programming, the off-side rule is a tenet of the Python programming language. Indentation is used by rule-abiding languages to define blocks. Off-side rule adherent Python is one of few languages.
Indentation has a specific meaning in a Python program, as you learned in the last tutorial on the structure of Python programs. The reason for this is that indentation is used to denote blocks of related statements. A block in a Python program consists of a series of statements that are all indented the same way. Thus, a Python compound if statement looks like this:
Lines 2 to 5 are considered to be part of the same block because they all have the same indentation level. If expr is true, the entire block executes, while if expr is false, the block is skipped. Following the following statement> (line 6) execution continues.
Tokens are not used to indicate the end of a block. There are two ways to tell when a block has come to a close.
Take foo.py as an example:
This is what happens when you run foo.py:
Lines 2-5 have the same indentation and print () commands. As a result, they form the code that would be executed if the underlying assumption was correct. Because it is untrue, the entire block is ignored. It doesn't matter whether or not lines 2 to 5 are executed, the first statement with a lower indentation level, the print () statement on line 6, is executed.
There is no limit on how deep blocks can be nested. Each new block is defined by a new indent, and each previous block is ended by an outdent. In the end, the structure is simple to follow, consistent, and easy to understand.
This script, called blocks.py, is a bit more complicated.
The following is an example of what you'll see after running this script:
When entering multiline expressions into a REPL session, you must include an extra newline because of the off-side constraint. Otherwise, the translator would have no means of knowing the if block's final statement had been entered.
Perhaps you'd like to know what other options are out there. It's unclear how blocks are declared in languages that don't follow the off-side rule
To denote the beginning and end of a block in most programming languages, special tokens are used as a strategy. Curly braces () are used to define blocks in Perl, for example:
Other programming languages, such as C/C++ and Java, also make use of curly brackets in this fashion.
Algol and Pascal, on the other hand, employ the keywords begin and end to denote the beginning and finish of a block.
It's all about how you look at it. They tend to have a strong opinion about how they do things in general. The off-side rule can generate a lot of controversies when it comes up for discussion.
The off-side rule is an issue you'll have to deal with if you are writing Python code. Python's control structures all rely on it, and you'll see this in several upcoming lectures. Many programmers initially resisted Python's approach to defining blocks, but they've since learned to enjoy it and even prefer it over more traditional methods.
If a certain condition is met, you may wish to conduct a certain course of action, but if it isn't, you may want to specify another course of action. The else clause is used to accomplish this:
If expr> is true, the first suite is run and the second is skipped. Second Suite Execution Is Skipped If 'Expr' Is False Execution resumes after the second suite is completed. Indentation is used to distinguish between the two suites, as indicated in the preceding paragraph. For example, lines 4 to 5 are run, and lines 7 to 8 are omitted because x is less than 50:
Because x exceeds 50 in this case, the first suite is omitted in favor of the second, which is run.
It's also possible to branch execution based on a variety of possible outcomes. One or more elif clauses can be used to do this. Each expr is evaluated in turn by Python, which then executes the set of instructions associated with the first one that is found to be true.
You can provide as many elif clauses as you like. The else clause is not required. One must be provided at the end if it is present:
An if statement with elif clauses, like the ‘and’ and ‘or’ operators, uses short-circuit evaluation. The remaining expressions are not tested when one of the tests returns true and its block is run. This can be seen in the following example:
There is a zero division in the second equation, and an undefined variable var is referred to in the third. As long as the first criterion is met, neither option will be assessed.
The following is a standard way to write if (expr) indented on a separate line from the statement (statement):
However, an entire if statement can be written on a single line. The following is essentially the same as the previous example. Semicolons are used to separate multiple statements on the same line.
One exception to this rule is when an entire if statement is written in one line. Functionally, this is just like the example above. Separated by semicolons, you can have multiple statements on a single line.
Unlike the other if statement forms, this one does not control the flow of program execution, unlike the ones listed above. It's more like an expression-defining operator. Conditional expr> is first evaluated in the above example. The expression evaluates to expr1 if it is true. It returns a value of expr2 if it is false.
It's important to note that the evaluation of the middle expression comes before the evaluation of the two ends, and as a result, only one of the two ends is returned. Here are a few real-world examples to illustrate my point:
Selective assignment of variables is a popular application of the conditional statement. Let's say you're trying to figure out which of two numbers is greater. You could, of course, use the built-in method max() to accomplish the same thing. But what if you want to start from scratch and develop your code?
The term "code stub" refers to a placeholder for a section of code that hasn't yet been implemented, such as when writing a test case.
Token delimiters, such as the curly brackets in C or Perl, can be used to define a code stub in these languages. Perl or C code like the following is acceptable:
The curly braces here denote an empty area. Even if the expression x is true, Perl or C will do nothing after evaluating it.
Specifying an empty block is impossible because Python utilizes indentation rather than delimiters. A follow-up statement, either indented or on the same line, is required after an if statement that begins with if expr. Consider foo.py as an example:
Foo.py doesn't work if it is attempted to be run.
This issue can be solved with the Python pass command. It does not affect the program's behavior. With this placeholder, the interpreter is kept happy in situations where a statement is required syntactically but no action is desired:
Foo.py is now error-free:
Congratulations! You have completed this tutorial on conditional statements in Python. We've explored the if-else statement in Python code and learned how to organize statements into blocks and understand the control structure concept in Python. Developing more complicated Python programs relies heavily on understanding these ideas. The while statement and the for statement are two new control structures that will be introduced in the next tutorial.
Welcome to the fourteenth chapter of our python tutorial course. In the last lesson, we looked at sets and operations done to sets, including union and intersection. In this tutorial, we'll take a closer look at lists and tuples to see how they're used. Python's most versatile and useful data types are lists and tuples. A non-trivial Python application will nearly always have these.
Lists and tuples have a number of significant features that you'll learn about. In this course, you'll understand the definitions and applications of these terms. By the time you're done, you'll know when and how to employ different Python object kinds.
In other words, Lists are similar to arrays in many other programming languages because they allow you to store any number of arbitrary elements within them. For a list to exist in Python, an object sequence must be enclosed in square brackets ([]) as seen in the example below:
In other words, a list is more than a collection of things. Collections of things are organized in this way. Lists are defined by the order in which their elements are listed, and this order is maintained throughout the life of the list itself. For more information on Python data types, check the dictionaries tutorial (coming soon).
A comparison of two lists that contain the same contents but are organized differently is impossible:
A list can be made up of any number of items. A list can have all of its elements of the same type:
Different kinds of elements can be used.
Complex objects such as functions, classes, and modules can also reside in lists, as you'll see in forthcoming tutorials:
From 0 to the limit of your computer's RAM, a list can contain any number of items.
Uniqueness isn't required for list objects. There is no limit to the number of times an object can be listed:
This is a question you could ask yourself whenever you need to access items in a list, and the answer is yes: an index in square brackets can be used to access items in a list. In other words, it's the same as looking up individual characters in a string. As with strings, the indexing of lists is zero-based. The following is a sample list:
Here are the indices for the items in a:
Slicing is another option. For lists, the formula a[m:n] retrieves only the part of a that is between m and but not containing n in the list a.
As you learned before, an item in a list can be of any type. Another list is included in that. You can have as many sublists as you want within a single list.
As an illustration, consider the following (obviously fabricated) scenario:
x refers to an item structure depicted in the image below:
These three strings below, are all one character in length:
Example of sublists are shown below:
Simply add an additional index to have access to the items in a sublist:
To the degree that your computer's RAM allows, there is no limit to the depth or complexity of nested lists in this manner.
A lot of your experience so far has been with atomic data types. Primitive units, such as integers and floats, are those that cannot be decomposed further. Once they've been allocated, these types aren't able to be modified. Changing the value of an integer doesn't make sense at all. If you prefer a different integer, simply change the one you've assigned.
The string type, on the other hand, is a complex type. Strings can be broken down into their constituent characters. Think of a string of characters and how they might be rearranged. However, this is not possible. Strings are also immutable in Python.
This is the first time you've met a mutable data type, the list. It is possible to add or remove items from a list at any time after it has been created. Lists can be modified in a variety of ways in Python.
A single value can be replaced in a list using indexing and simple assignment.
A string can't be used to accomplish this, as demonstrated in the Python tutorial Strings and Character Data.
In order to remove a list item, use the del command:
Suppose you'd like to change several neighboring items in a list at the same time. The following Python syntax for a slice assignment makes this possible.
Consider an iterable list at this point. iterable is substituted for the slice of a specified here:
It's not necessary to have the same number of new elements as the number of old ones. Python simply increases or decreases the list based on the task at hand. Utilize a slice which only refers to one element when you wish to replace a single element with multiple ones:
You can also add items to a list without having to remove anything from the original list. Simply type [n:n] to produce a zero-length slice at the requested index.
You can remove a large number of items from a list by assigning the correct slice to an empty list. It is possible to use the del statement with the same slice:
To add more items to the beginning or end of a list, you can use the + concatenation operator or the += augmented assignment operator:
For example, a singleton list can only have one item in it, hence, it must be added to a different list:
Python provides a number of built-in methods for modifying lists. Below, you'll find more information on these methods. The target string was not directly modified in the previous tutorial's string methods. Strings are immutable, so this is why. String methods, on the other hand, give you back a completely rewritten string object. They don't change the target string at all:
List methods differ from other approaches. Lists are changeable, therefore the target list gets modified while the list method is running.
Adds a new item to the end of a collection.
List functions change the target list on the fly. They don't give you a new one:
Adds items from an iterable to a list.
Yes, it's most likely what you're expecting. Additionally, an iterable is required as an argument to extend(). iterable> elements are inserted one at a time:
To put it another way, extend() functions similarly to the plus sign (+). Because it alters the list while it's still in place, it's equivalent to the += operator:
A new element is added to a collection with the help of this method. Object obj> is inserted into the list an at the index indicated by insert(index>, obj>). It's a[index>] obj, and the remaining list items are moved rightward after the function call.
In a list, this function removes one item. remove(<obj>) list an is cleared of obj. An exception is thrown if obj> is not in a:
In a list, this function removes one item. There are two key differences between this method and remove():
The last item in the list is simply removed by calling pop():
Specifying an index in the optional index parameter causes this command to remove and return the given item. Like string and list indexing, index can be negative.
Python lists are described in this course by a set of six qualities. Finally, lists can be reordered. Sections above have shown many instances of this. A list expands as new things are added:
Similarly, as things are removed from a list, the list gets smaller.
A tuple is a collection of things that are arranged in a specific order. When it comes to the pronunciation of a word or phrase, it depends on who you ask. A few people say it as if it were spelled "too-ple," while others pronounce it as "tup-ple," which rhymes with "supple." Because everyone I know pronounces "supple," "quintuple," "sextuple," and "octuple" as though they rhyme with "supple," my preference is for the latter.
Lists and tuples are nearly identical, with the exception of the following characteristics:
As an illustration of tuples in action, consider the following code sample:
There's no need to worry! Reversing a tuple is as simple as using our usual string and list reversal process:
It's important to remember that although though tuples are constructed using parenthesis, you still use square brackets to index and slice them.
A tuple is a list with the same properties as a list: it's ordered, it can include arbitrary objects; it's indexable and sliceable; and it can be nestable like any other list. However, they cannot be changed:
There is a way to display the values of several objects at once in a Python REPL session by simply inserting them one after the other between commas:
Because Python interprets the input as a tuple, it presents the response in parentheses. The definition of a tuple has a peculiarity that you should know about. It's impossible to be vague when creating a tuple that has no items or a tuple with two or more. A tuple is defined in Python:
Because parentheses are used to denote operator precedence in expressions, the expression (2) creates an int object. Before closing parentheses, you need to put in an extra comma (,): This tells Python that you plan to create a single tuple.
There has to be a mechanism to define a singleton tuple, even if you don't need to do it very often.
Using Python, you can display a singleton tuple by putting a comma in front of it:
You've seen this before: a literal tuple can be allocated to a single object.
When this happens, it's as if the tuple's contents have been "stuffed" into the object:
"packed" objects can be "unpacked" into a new tuple by assigning them to the new tuple's objects.
Otherwise, a problem will emerge when unpacking a tuple: if there are more variables than values, an error will occur.
Compound assignments can be created by combining the steps of packing and unpacking into a single expression.
It's important to remember that in this tuple, the components on the left and right must be equal.
It is possible to leave off the parentheses required to denote a tuple in Python assignments like this one and a few others:
If you're unsure whether or not the parentheses are necessary, go ahead and put them in if you have any doubt. Python idioms are made possible by multiple assignment. As a programmer, it is common to have two variables whose values must be swapped. While the swap is taking place, a temporary variable must be used to store one of the values.
In Python, a simple tuple assignment is all that is needed to perform a swap:
If you have ever used a Python temporary variable to exchange values, this is the pinnacle of modern technology. It's the greatest it's ever going to be.
Congratulations! You have now completed the list and tuple tutorial. Python lists and tuples were introduced, along with some of their basic features and operations. In Python, you'll be relying on these all the time. It is a list's primary property that it is organized. It is impossible to modify the order of a list's elements, unless, of course, the list is altered. The same is true for tuples, except that they can't be updated. Python's conditional statements will be covered in the upcoming lesson.
