The Engineering Projects

Introduction and Installation of Emu8086 in windows

Hey Pals, Welcome to the new lesson. I hope you are having a productive day. Today, we'll talk about installation of Emu8086 application in windows. but  before this, It is important to have the brief introduction of the application. Lets find out what is Emu8086.

"Emu8086 is a powerful, offline and  free software for emulation, disassembling and debugging of 8086 programs i.e, 16 bits/DOS." It is an Integrated Development Environment (IDE) that write a source, assemble it and link into .COM or .EXE file then trace it in machine code and source file. When we launch the Emu8086 Asm or Ist will start the assembler source editor. one the other hand, .exe and obj files starts the disassembler and debugger units.

Let's move towards its installation:

Prerequisite:

You must have

1. A PC
2. An active internet Connection
3. Administrative rights for Windows XP/Vista/7 users.
4. 10 Mb of hard disk space
5. 1024x768 or greater screen resolution.

Installation Process:

You can get Emu8086 through the link given below: Introduction and Installation of Emu8086 in windows

• Click it and you will get a Website.
• Click "Download for PC" button. This opens a new tab and the downloading starts.

Observe that the zip file of 3Mb in your folders .

• Click on the small arrow, open the folder. A folder will be pop up.
• Double click at "Setup". It will ask for the permission. Allow it by clicking "yes".

The Window will appear that will start the setup process.

• Click "Next" to continue the process.

A new will be appear like this:

• Close All the Application running applications and click "Next".
• Now, You have to give the path for the folder .By default the path is given for the C directory but you can change it by clicking Browse.

• Read all the tabs appeared after it and then Click "Next".

In the last window, it will ask does we want to launch the Emu8086 or Does we wish to read the instruction.

• Choose the action you want to be launched or mere remove the tick mark and the setup is finished.

The Emu8086 icon will appear on your desktop. You can use it whenever you want. Hence, today we learnt about Emu8086. We saw the brief introduction along will the installation process in detail.

Shunt Clippers and Dual Clippers in Proteus ISIS

Bonjour trainees!!! Welcome to the Engineering projects, We hope you are doing great. In our previous lecture, we discussed the first type of clippers in detail i.e. Series Clippers. Today, we are going to discuss the next two types of Clippers i.e. Shunt Clippers and Dual Clippers. Here are the types of Clippers from the last lecture:

So, today, we are going to cover the below concepts:

1. what is a Shunt Clipper?
2. Types of Shunt Clippers
3. Implementation of shunt Clippers in Proteus ISIS.
4. Dual Clippers basics.
5. Implementation of Dual Clippers in Proteus ISIS.

So, let's get started:

What is a Shunt Clipper?

• In Shunt Clippers(Parallel Clippers), the diode is connected in Shunt(Parallel) to the input signal source & the load resistance, as shown in the below figure:
  

As the diode is in parallel with the load & source, so during the positive half cycle, the diode will be in the forward-biased state(short circuit) and thus no current will flow to the load resistance. While during the negative half cycle, the diode will be in a reverse-biased state(open circuit) and the load resistance will get all the current flow.

Now, let's have a look at the types of Shunt Clipper:

Types of Shunt Clippers

Shunt clippers are Classified into four main types, named:

• Positive
• Positive with bias
• Negative
• Negative with bias

Let's implement these Clipper types in the Proteus:

Implementation of Shunt Clippers in Proteus

So, open your Proteus software and add these components:

Components Required

1. Vsine
2. Diode
3. Resistor
4. Ground terminal
5. Oscilloscope

• We can get the first three components from the "Pick library" by searching for the required component.
• We can get the Ground Terminal by left-clicking on the screen and then go to Place>Terminal>Ground.
• Get the Oscilloscope from the "Virtual Instrument" in the leftmost bar.

Now let's design the first type of Shunt Clipper:

Positive Shunt Clipper:

Now place the above components in the Proteus workspace and design the circuit, as shown in the below figure:

As you can see in the above figure, the diode is placed parallel to the load resistance. The arrowhead of the diode points opposite to the input source. As we discussed above, the load resistance will get voltage only if the diode is in a reverse-biased state. In the current arrangement, during the negative cycle of the AC signal, the diode will be reverse-biased, and the load will get complete power. The positive cycle of the input will be clipped off, as the diode will be in a forward-biased state, not allowing any current to flow through the load.

Change the values of components according to the below table:

Components	Value
Resistor R1	600 ohm
Resistor R2	500 ohm
Vsine	Amplitude =110V,Frequency= 1000Hz
Oscilloscope	Time= 0.2m-1,Voltage 20V

• Now run the simulation and you will definitely acquire the required output:

Positive with bias:

If you recall from our previous lecture on Series Clippers, we have added a battery in the bias clippers. Here, we are going to do the same, as shown in the below figure:

As we can see in the above figure, a battery of 5V is added in series with the diode. By adding the battery in the circuit of positive shunt clippers, we can easily control the amount of signal to be clipped. This arrangement is called Positive Shunt Clippers with bias or Biased Positive Shunt Clippers.

In the above circuit, we placed the battery just after the diode and the Positive Terminal of the battery connects with the diode's arrowhead and the negative terminal is connected to the Vsine source.

Here's the output of Positive Bias Shunt Clipper:

Negative Shunt Clippers:

In negative Shunt Clippers, the diode polarity is reversed i.e.the positive end of the diode is connected to the negative terminal of the battery and the negative end of the diode is connected to the positive terminal of the battery, as shown in the below figure:

In this arrangement, the diode is forward-biased during the negative half cycle, so no current will pass to the load. We can say, the negative cycle is clipped off. While in the positive cycle, the diode is reversed bias(open circuit) and thus current is flowing through the load resistor.

We will get the following waveform on the oscilloscope:

Biased Negative Shunt Clippers:

By now, you must have understood that an extra battery is added in series with the diode to create a Bias Clipper. As it's a negative bias, so the polarity of the battery is reversed i.e. the negative terminal of the battery is connected to the diode and the positive terminal of the battery is connected to the Vsine Source. The output is shown in the below figure:

So, that was all about the Shunt Clippers. Now let's have a look at the third tye of clippers i.e. Dual Clippers. Let's get started:

What is a Dual Clipper?

As the name depicts, the Dual Clipper is a combination of two types of Shunt Clippers i.e.

1. Biased Shunt Positive Clipper.
2. Biased Shunt Negative Clipper.

Now, let's move towards its simulation:

Dual Clipper Proteus Simulation

We have studied both Positive & Negative Bias Shunt Clippers in the previous section, so now we need to add both clippers in a single circuit, as shown in the below figure:

As you can see in the above figure, the circuit has four parallel branches, let's discuss them one by one:

• The First branch has an AC input source.
• The second branch has a Biased Shunt Positive Clipper i.e. Diode and a battery.
• The third branch has a Biased Shunt Negative Clipper i.e. Diode and a battery, but here the polarity is reversed.
• In the fourth branch, we have the load.
• Pop the Play button, and have a look at the output:

One can see that we got a square wave that conducts the current in both directions but in clipped form. We need Dual clippers in the place where we need to clip some part of both sides of the sinusoidal wave.

So, that's all for today. In this article, we discussed what are Shunt Clippers? what are their types? and How to simulate in Proteus? We also discussed Dual Clippers along with their implementation in Proteus ISIS. Take care!!!

Full Wave Rectification in Proteus

Hey buddies, hope you all are fine. In our previous tutorial, we studied Half Wave Rectification and have seen that it rectifies the half wave of the AC signal. Today, we are going to study Full Wave Rectification to rectify the complete AC source. We will design the simulation of the Full Wave Rectifier in Proteus software. So, let's get started:

What is Full Wave Rectification?

A comprehensive definition of full-wave rectification is:

• Full-wave rectification is a process to convert both cycles(positive & negative) of input(sinusoidal) wave to pulsating DC (Direct current).

We have studied in the previous lecture that Half Wave Rectifiers are used to convert only one cycle(either positive or negative) of an AC signal into a DC signal, thus dissipating the 50% energy of the overall signal. But in Full Wave Rectifiers, both cycles of the AC signal are converted into a single pulsating DC signal.

We used a single diode in our circuit to achieve half-wave rectification but for full-wave rectification, we need to create a bridge using 4 diodes. Here's the circuit diagram of Full Wave Rectification, designed in Proteus:

Why Full Wave Rectification?

Full Wave Rectification is always preferred over half wave rectification because of following factors:

• In half-wave rectification, half of the wave gets wasted as the diode suppresses the second half cycle. But if we add the diode bridge, we can easily get the complete signal i.e. both of its cycles.
• Full Wave Rectification gives higher output values with a low ripple factor.

Full Wave Rectifier Simulation in Proteus ISIS:

You can download the complete Proteus Simulation of Full Wave Rectifier, by clicking the below button:

Full Wave Rectification in Proteus

First of all, we have to pick the components from the Proteus Components Library. We are going to need these three basic components:

1. Full Wave rectification bridge
2. Resistor
3. Alternating voltage source

• Go to the pick library button and select these components, as shown in the below figure:
  

• So, design the circuit for full-wave rectification in Proteus, as shown in the below figure:

• Change the value of load resistance to 500 ohms.
• Set the Vsine Frequency to 1000Hz & amplitude to 120V.
  

Now we are going to place an oscilloscope to monitor the input & output signals. You will find the oscilloscope in the "Virtual Instruments" section on the left bar. So, our final circuit with an oscilloscope is shown in the below figure:

• The oscilloscope settings are shown in the below figure:
  

The output of oscilloscope is shown in the below:

As you can see in the above figure:

• The Yellow(A Terminal) wave shows the sinusoidal wave. Whereas, the blue wave (B terminal) shows a positive half-cycle and the magenta one (C terminal) shows a negative half-cycle. And the magic is, both the outputs are direct currents and are combined in a single direction at the load resistance.

Thus, today we studied another simple Proteus experiment that shows what is full wave rectification, how to make the simplest circuit that shows the best output of full wave rectification and why we need the full wave rectification circuit. Till the next tutorial, take care!!!

Common Collector BJT Amplifier in Proteus ISIS

Hi Mentees, Welcome to a new tutorial at The Engineering Projects. Today You will unearth about Common Collector bipolar Junction Transistor Amplifiers. Before this, we learnt about two types of Configurations of Transistors named Common Emitter BJT Amplifiers and Common Base BJT Amplifiers.

In this tutorial We'll discuss about:

1. Introduction of Common Collector BJT Amplifier.
2. Basic Concepts for the Common Collector BJT Amplifiers.
3. Implementation of Common Collector BJT Amplifiers in Proteus ISIS.
4. Characteristics and advantages of Common Collector BJT Amplifiers.

So that, you can get the best understanding about the topic and its practical implementation.

Introduction

1st  of all, We'll have a brief definition of the Common Collector Amplifier: " A type of Bipolar Junction Transistor Amplifier is called Common Collector BJT Amplifiers in which Collector is common to both Base, Base region is used for input and emitter is used to take the output of the Amplifier."  It is one of the Configuration of the Transistor and is used in many kinds of circuits due to its efficiency. Other two Configurations are;

1. Common Base BJT Amplifiers.
2. Common Emitter BJT Amplifiers.

All of them acquire their Own Construction, characteristics and advantages as we as disadvantages. Common Collectors are also called as Emitter follower Configuration as the emitter voltage follows the base voltage.

Basic Concepts:

It is Always useful to get core information about the circuit before its Implementation. Let's see what a Common Collector amplifiers is. Type of transistor: Recall that  the are two types of Transistors i.e, 1. NPN 2.PNP. the Transistor we are using NPN transistor for our Experiment because in this type, the electrons are majority carries that have more mobility than holes ( majority charge carriers in PNP transistors) therefore, we get quick and easy output due to best electron flow.   Current Gain: The current gain of this type of amplifier is also taken as the division of the Emitter current with the base current and mathematically it is stated as:

Current Gain = Emitter current/Base Current

? = I_E/I_B = ß + 1

Voltage Gain : Voltage Gain of Common Collector BJT Amplifier is considered to be the unity, i.e. 1 and is obtained by the formula given below: Voltage Gain=Vout/Vin where in Common Collector amplifier we give the input to Base and take the output from the emitter of the transistor. Emitter Current: in this Configuration the Emitter current is taken as the sum of base current and collector current. consequently, we say  Ie=Ib+Ic we can use this equation in others ways as,

Ib=Ie-Ic

Ic=Ie-Ib

we can also say that the collector current is approximately equal to Emitter current because base is very thin region and passes a minute amount of current through it.

Implementation of Common Collector BJT Amplifier in Proteus ISIS

At the instance, we will test the circuit given in the circuit diagram in Proteus. the material for the Circuit is given below. Material Required: 

1. Transistor (2N1711)
2. Capacitor
3. Resistor
4. Vsine
5. Oscilloscope
6. Ground

• Take 1st four components from the "Pick device" library presented at the left corner of the screen.
• Set them at the working area according to the circuit diagram.
• Add the ground terminal by left clicking the screen >Go to Place>Terminal>Ground and add the ground Terminal.

NOTE: You can also connect just one Ground terminal to the circuit if you connect the Circuit with a wire at the bottom. Now, the Circuit will look like this:

• Add the DC source from "Generation Mode" to just above the circuit.

Now, We need an output device to examine the output. Therefore, We'll use Oscilloscope. Choose it from "Virtual Instrument mode".

• Set the Oscilloscope just aside the circuit and Connect Channel A with input (Base) and the Channel B with the output ( Emitter).

Before Starting the simulation, I am going to change the values of the Components I used because the default values will not give us the required Output.

• we will use the 120V for the DC Power source.
• One can clearly examine that the Values of the Components are given according to the table given below:

Components	Values
Resistor R1	10ohm
Resistor R2	100ohm
Resistor R3	20ohm
Resistor R4	100kohm
VSine	Amplitude=220, Frequency=1000
Capacitor 1	50m
Capacitor 2	2m
Oscilloscope	Channel 5V, Channel B=5V, Time=0.2mS-1

 

• After setting the values  you can change the value of Oscilloscope to get the required output.

NOTE: The amplifiers are sensitive to the temperature and the type of transistor used, hence their must be the practice to get the best output.

Characteristics

• The input Resistance of Common Collector Amplifiers is high.
• The power gain of this kind of amplifiers is medium.
• It has low output resistance.
• It has non-inverting effect (opposite to other two Configuration that gives the inversion of the wave).
• It has zero voltage gain.

Advantages of Common Collector BJT Amplifiers

1. It is useful for the circuits where the high impedance is required.
2. It is mostly used as voltage buffers as the voltage gain is unity.
3. The Common Collector configuration is used in the Circuit where the engineers want the high current gain.
4. Due to its high current gain, it is applied in circuits to drive heavy loads.
5. We use it for voltage translation stage.

NOTE: Sometimes, It becomes the disadvantage of the Common Collector bipolar Junction Transistor Amplifier that they have no voltage Gain. Summary: Today, we ascertained the Basic Common Collector BJT Amplifiers, learnt some Concepts about it, saw the Implementation in Proteus ISIS, saw some characteristics and found the advantages of the Common Collector Configuration.

Design of a Load Cell

Hi Friends! Hope you’re well today. I welcome you on board. In this post today, I’ll walk you through the details on the design of a load cell. Strain gauge load cells are widely used in various applications. They work on the principle of varying electrical resistance with elastic deformation in the conductor. The strain gauge comprises thin wires which are affected by a change in environment. Expansion or contraction in a strain gauge occurs with varying temperatures which results in creating noise and lack of accuracy in measurement. The life of the device may also be affected due to corrosion that may occur in the elastic element. In addition to the possible deterioration, the load cell itself may cause safety issues with regard to the environment. For example, in a refinery or chemical industry, the ignition of flammable liquids or gases may occur due to the use of load cells. Therefore, they must be designed accordingly.

        Hermetically Sealed

Hermetically sealed load cells provide the best protection to the environment. The load cell is sealed by welding, using epoxy or glass-to-metal bonding. Pressurized inert gas is filled inside the cell. These load cells are standardized by Ingress Protection (IP) rating as air and watertight.

        Open

These are designed in normal indoor conditions or special outdoor environments. Soft resin or rubber covering is used for environmental protection in this type of load cell. However, the strain gauge becomes vulnerable to moisture and change in temperature due to this type of protection.

        Explosion-proof

As the name suggests, this type of load cell protects from any explosion that may occur within the device. If the internal cavities in a device or equipment are exposed to gases, these gases, once filled in the cavity, will lead to a potential explosion. An explosion-proof load cell is highly suitable for such conditions. Their rating is achieved by combining confinement, limitation of energy, and segregation. Other factors to consider when designing a load cell are:

•         The maximum weight that a load cell can measure is called Rated Capacity or rated load. Therefore, the load cell rated load must be greater than the weight to be measured in a system.
•         Overload Rating (Safe) is the maximum load that can be exerted on a load cell without causing plastic deformation while measuring the weight of an element.
•         Overload Rating (Ultimate) is the maximum load that can be exerted on the load cell without causing a fracture to the load cell.

•         Rated Output is the ratio of the electric output signal and the strength of the excitation voltage expressed in mV/V.
•         Zero Balance is the electric output signal with rated excitation voltage at no-load condition.
•         Excitation Voltage is the voltage for excitation transferred to the circuit.
•         Non-linearity defines the deviation of the calibration curve of the load cell from a straight line. It starts from zero loads up to the maximum capacity of the cell.
•         Hysteresis is defined as the difference in the cycle a load cell follows while increasing the load from zero to maximum and then decreasing it from maximum to zero.
•         Combined Error is calculated by measuring non-linear and hysteresis effects in combination.
•         Repeatability is the measure of the difference between readings of repeated loads under the same loading conditions.
•         Temperature Effect on Rated Output is the change in readings due to a change in temperature.
•         Temperature Effect on Zero is the change in the zero-reading due to a change in temperature.
•         Input and Output Resistance is the resistance of the circuit measured at the input and output respectively.
•         Insulation Resistance is the measured resistance between the circuit and housing of the load cell.

That’s all for today. I hope you’ve enjoyed reading this article. If you have any questions, you can ask me in the section below. Thank you for reading the article.

TDA2005 Amplifier Datasheet, Pinout, Features & Applications

Hi Everyone! Hope you’re well today. Happy to see you around. In this post today, I’ll walk you through the Introduction to TDA2005.

TDA2005 is a 20-watt Class B dual audio amplifier integrated chip. It comes in a Multiwatt11 package and is carefully designed for car radio applications. It can support the current up to 3.5A which is quite high which makes it a suitable pick for constructing power booster amplifiers.

I suggest you read this post all the way through as I’ll detail the complete Introduction to TDA2005 covering datasheet, pinout, features, and applications. Let’s jump right in.

Introduction to TDA2005

• TDA2005 is a 20-watt Class B dual audio amplifier integrated chip. It is particularly designed for car radio applications.

• It comes with a high current capability and features a total of 11 pins on board.
• It supports low impedance loads of around 1.6 with an output power of more than 20 W.
• TDA2005 features a bridge or stereo setup and the total power dissipation is 30W.
• This device is mainly employed in applications where high-output audio power amplification is required.

• Incorporated with protection against load dump voltage surge, this device features a maximum supply voltage of around +28V.
• The repetitive current through each output is 3.5A while the maximum non-repetitive peak current through each output is 4.5A.
• The storage temperature range is -40°C to 150°C while the operating temperature range is -23°C to 130°C.
• This chip employed in stereo amplification applications will exhibit a voltage gain of 51 dB.

TDA2005 Datasheet

Before you apply this device to your electrical project, it’s wise to go through the datasheet of the component that features the main characteristics of the device. You can download the datasheet of TDA2005 by clicking the link mentioned below.

TDA2005 Pinout

The TDA2005 is an 11-pin device. The following figure represents the pinout diagram of TDA2005. The following table shows the pin name and pin description of TDA2005.

Pin Description of TDA2005
Pin No.	Pin Description	Pin Name
1	Non-Inverting Input of amplifier 1	INPUT+(1)
2	Inverting Input of amplifier 1	INPUT-(1)
3	Supply Voltage Rejection Ratio	SVRR
4	Inverting Input of amplifier 2	INPUT-(2)
5	Non-Inverting Input of amplifier 2	INPUT+(2)
6	The ground is connected to this pin	GND
7	Amplifier 2 bootstrap capacitor	BOOTSTRAP(2)
8	The output of amplifier 2	OUTPUT(2)
9	Positive Power Supply	+VS
10	The output of amplifier 1	OUTPUT(1)
11	Amplifier 1 bootstrap capacitor	BOOTSTRAP(1)

TDA2005 Features

• Overheat protection and output short circuit protection
• A few components required to put the amplifier in working condition
• Operating voltage range = +8 to +18V
• High output power - Po=10 + 10 W @ RL = 2 ?, Po = 20 W @ RL = 4 ?
• Programmable gain and bandwidth

• Peak supply voltage = +40V for 50ms
• Loudspeaker protection against short circuit
• Incorporated with protection against load dump voltage surge
• Supply voltage Max. = +28V
• Comes with protection against fortuitous open ground
• Total power dissipation = 30W
• Comes with Bridge or Stereo setup
• Repetitive current through each output = 3.5A
• The non-repetitive peak current through each output Max. = 4.5A
• Storage temperature range = -40°C  to 150°C
• Operating temperature range = -23°C  to 130°C

TDA2005 Applications

The TDA2005 is used in the following applications.

• Employed in Car radio
• Used in Microphone amplifiers
• Used in audio power amplifiers
• Incorporated in Woofer amplifiers
• Used in Music players

That’s all for today. Hope you found this article helpful. If you have any questions, you can pop your comment in the section below. I’d love to help you the best way I can. Feel free to share your valuable suggestions around the content we share so we keep creating quality content customized to your exact needs and requirements. Thank you for reading the article.

ESP32 Pinout, Datasheet, Features & Applications

Hi Guys! I hope you’re doing great. Today, I am going to share Chapter Zero of the ESP32 Programming Course. I have called it Chapter 0 because today, we won't practically work on the ESP32. Instead, I’ll walk you through the detailed theoretical Introduction to the ESP32 Module, where we will discuss the ESP32 Pinout, Datasheet, Specifications, Features, Applications etc. in detail.

ESP32 is an embedded module that supports both WiFi and BT(dual-mode) connectivity and is thus used in Cloud-based IoT projects. ESP32 is the upgraded model of the ESP8266 module and is designed by Espressif Systems in China.

The following tables show the main features and technical specifications of the ESP32 module.

ESP32 Technical Specifications
No.	Parameter Name	Parameter Value
1	Microprocessor	Tensilica Xtensa single-/dual-core 32-bit LX6 microprocessor(s)
2	CoreMark® score	1 core at 240 MHz: 504.85 CoreMark; 2.10 CoreMark/MHz
		2 cores at 240 MHz: 994.26 CoreMark; 4.14 CoreMark/MHz
3	Operating Voltage	3.3V
4	DC Current on 3.3V Pin	50 mA
5	DC Current on I/O Pins	40 mA
6	Maximum Operating Frequency	240MHz
7	Frequency Oscillators	8MHz (Internal Oscillator)
		Internal RC Oscillatoror
		2MHz ~ 60MHz External Crystal Oscillator(40MHz required for WiFi/BT)
		32kHz External Crystal Oscillator(For RTC)
8	Timers	2 x 64-bit Timers, 1 RTC Timer,

ESP32 Pinout
1	DAC	2 Channels (8-bit, digital to analog converter)
2	ADC	18 Channels (12-bit, analog to digital converter)
3	Capacitive Touch Sensors	10
4	LED PWM	16 Channels

ESP32 Communication Protocols
1	Wi-Fi	802.11 b/g/n (Speed upto 150Mbps)
2	Bluetooth	Supports Classic Bluetooth v4.2 BR/EDR & Bluetooth Low Energy(BLE)
3	Bluetooth Low Energy	Supports BLE
4	UART Protocol	3 Channels
5	SPI Protocol	4 Channels
6	I2C Protocol	2 Channels
7	I2S Protocol	2 Channels (for digital audio)
8	CAN Protocol	1 Channels

ESP32 Builtin Memory
No.	Parameter Name	Parameter Value
1	SRAM	520kb
2	ROM(Flash Memory)	448kb
3	RTC SRAM	16kb

So, let's get started with the Introduction to ESP32:

Where To Buy?
No.	Components	Distributor	Link To Buy
1	ESP32	Amazon	Buy Now

Introduction to ESP32 Module

• ESP32 (designed by Espressif Systems, a Shanghai-based Chinese Company) is a 48 Pin microprocessor-based embedded IC(available in QFN package), that supports both WiFi & BT(dual-mode) connectivity and is used majorly in wearable devices, mobile & cloud-based IoT applications.
• The microprocessor used in the ESP32 chip is the Tensilica Xtensa LX6 microprocessor (single-core and dual-core).
• A few LX6 based ESP32 ICs are:
  • ESP32-D0WDQ6 (and ESP32-D0WD)
  • ESP32-D2WD
  • ESP32-S0WD
  • ESP32-PICO-D4

ESP32 vs ESP8266

• Both the ESP32 and ESP8266 are inexpensive WiFi modules with low power consumption.
• Both modules are desirable for DIY projects in the areas of IoT (Internet of Things) and automation.
• The ESP32 is a dual-core 160Mhz 240Mhz CPU, while the ESP8266 has an 80Mhz single-core processor. Therefore, if your primary concern is processor speed, you should prioritize the ESP32 over the ESP8266.
• The ESP32 offers more GPIO than the ESP8266.
• ESP32 supports Bluetooth 4.2 and BLE(Bluetooth Low Energy).
• The ESP32 offers a 12-bit ADC, while the ESP8266 offers only a 10-bit ADC.

ESP32-WROOM-32

• ESP32-WROOM-32 is a 38-pin breakout board of ESP32, which is most commonly used in third-party ESP32 modules.
• As ESP32 IC is available in the QFN(Quad Flat No Leads) package, so it's quite difficult to solder the IC in embedded projects.
• So, to ease the process of using ESP32 IC, Espressif Systems designed numerous small modules(using ESP32 chip) that have a built-in antenna and easily usable pinout.
• Other ESP32 modules are ESP32-SOLO and ESP32-WROVER.
• One of the most commonly used breakout boards of ESP32 is ESP32-WROOM-32, shown in the below figure:

Third-Party ESP32 Development Modules

• Many embedded companies have used ESP32-WROOM-32 and designed different ESP32 development boards, which are plug-and-play modules and are thus normally used for learning and prototyping purposes.
• One of the most commonly used ESP32 development boards is called ESP32-DevkitC.
• ESP32-DevKitC is a 30-pin ESP32-based development board, designed by Espressif Systems and is used in embedded and IoT projects.

• All you need to do is plug this device using a USB cable and play with it on the fly.
• Boot mode and Reset buttons are incorporated on the board.
• USB micro connector and USB-UART Bridge, and LDO regulator are also included in the device.

Types of ESP32 Development Boards

• The following are the five different versions of ESP32-DevKitC.
  1. ESP32-DevKitC-32E
  2. ESP32-DevKitC-32UE
  3. ESP32-DevKitCVE
  4. ESP32-DevKitCVIE
  5. ESP32-DevKitCS1

So, that was the evolution of ESP32 from a simple IC to plug & play board. Now let's have a look at the Pinout of the ESP32 microcontroller and modules:

ESP32 Pinout

We have seen above that ESP32 has evolved first into ESP32-WROOM-32 and is further upgraded into ESP32-DevKitC. So, let's have a look at the pinout of all these boards, one by one:

Pinout of ESP32 IC

• ESP32 IC in its pure form consists of 48 pins in total.
• The following figure shows the labeled ESP32 Pinout diagram:

Pinout of ESP32-WROOM-32

• ESP32-WROOM-32 is a breakout board of ESP32 and consists of 38 pins in total.
• Here's the pinout of the ESP-WROOM-32 board:

Pinout of ESP32-DevkitC

• ESP32-DevKitC is a development board based on the ESP32 microcontroller and it has 36 pins in total.
• Here's the pinout diagram of ESP32 DevKitC:

ESP32 Pin Description

Now, let's have a look at the functions of ESP32 Pinout:

Power Pins in ESP32

• Power: Power is applied through Micro-USB, 3.3V pin, 5V pin, and GND. Regulated 5V is supplied to this pin which is further regulated to 3.3V to power up the board. And 3.3V pin directly supplies the 3.3V regulated to the board. And the ground is connected to GND.
• Enable: The enable pin is represented by ‘En’ on the board and is used to reset the microcontroller.
• AREF: It is marked as AREF which is used to provide a reference voltage for input voltage.

GPIO Pins in ESP32

ESP32 has 36 GPIO(general purpose input/output) pins to perform numerous operations(normally one at a time). Third-party ESP32 modules have different numbers of GPIO pins i.e. ESP32 Dev Kit V1 includes 30 GPIO pins. Let's have a look at the functionality of ESP32 GPIO Pins:

ADC Pins in ESP32

• ADC Pins: ESP32 has a total of 18 ADC channels(12-bit each) used to measure the analog voltage within the range of 0-3.3V.

ESP32 is equipped with two SAR analog-to-digital converter modules named ADC1 and ADC2. ADC1 has 10 Channels labeled from ADC2_1 to ADC2_7, while ADC2 has 10 Channels labeled from ADC2_0 to ADC2_9. The ADC output value ranges from 0 to 4093 at 12-bit resolution.

DAC Pins in ESP32

• DAC Pins: ESP32 features 2 distinct 8-bit digital-to-analog converters(DAC1 and DAC2) for translating digital values to analog signals. The DAC function is attached to below two GPIO pins:

1. DAC1-GPIO25
2. DAC2-GPIO26

The DAC employs a power supply as an input reference voltage and features an internal resistance network.

PWM Pins in ESP32

• PWM Pins: ESP32's PWM controller has 16 independent PWM channels with configurable frequency and duty cycles. Any GPIO pin can be used as a PWM pin.

PWM pulses are used to control the speed of motors or the brightness of LEDs. You can configure the frequency, channel, GPIO pin, and duty cycle of the PWM signal.

SPI Pins in ESP32

• SPI Pins: ESP32 has three SPI blocks that operate in both master and slave modes, named SPI, HSPI, and VSPI.

Among these 3 blocks, SPI is used as an interface to flash memory. So, we are left with HSPI and VSPI for normal use:

1. VSPI: ESP32 VSPI Pins are GPIO23 (MOSI), GPIO19 (MISO), GPIO18 (CLK) and GPIO5 (CS) used for SPI-1 communication.
2. HSPI: ESP32 HSPI Pins are GPIO13 (MOSI), GPIO12 (MISO), GPIO14 (CLK) and GPIO15 (CS) used for SPI-2 communication.

I2C Pins in ESP32

The ESP32 has two I2C interfaces. The SCL and SDA pins of both I2C interfaces can be assigned by a user in the program. The default I2C pins are:

• SDA-GPIO21
• SCL-GPIO22

ESP32 Capacitive Touch Sensors

• ESP32 has 10 capacitive touch-sensing GPIO Pins(T0 to T9), which get electrostatically charged when a finger touches the respective GPIO pin.

Without any additional hardware, these touch GPIOs can be utilized to make capacitive touchpads. Variations in capacitance are evident.

RTC GPIO

• ESP32 has 18 Low-Power RTC GPIO Pins(RTCIO0 to RTCIO17) used to wake up the ESP32 board from deep sleep mode.

• Serial: Two serial pins are represented on boards as Tx and Rx. The Tx is used to transmit serial data while Rx is used to receive serial data.

• External Interrupts: All GPIO pins can be used as external interrupts.

ESP32 Datasheet

Before you incorporate this device into your electrical project, it’s wise to go through the datasheet of the component that features the main characteristics of the device. You can click the link given below to download the ESP32 datasheet.

Now, let's have a look at the features of ESP32:

ESP32 Features

Here are the main features of ESP32 IC:

• ESP32 has built-in integration of both WiFi and Bluetooth dual-mode.
• ESP32 has 34 programmable GPIOs present on the chip.
• ADC is of 12-bit SAR and can support up to 18 channels.
• DAC is 8-bit and it has 2 DAC channels.
• ESP32 also has 10 touch sensors embedded in it.
• ESP32 also has a Hall sensor in it.
• It supports 4 SPI channels.
• It also has 2 I²S channels.
• ESP32 has 2 I²C ports in it.
• It supports 3 UART channels.
• It also has 1 host(SD/MMC/SDIO) and 1 slave(SDIO/SPI).
• ESP32 also supports the Ethernet MAC interface with dedicated DMA and IEEE 1588 support.
• It supports Two-Wire Automotive Interface (TWAI®, compatible with ISO11898-1)
• LED PWM up to 16 channels

A few of ESP32's key features are discussed below in detail:

ESP32 WiFi Key Features

• Wireless Networking Standard: 802.11 b/g/n
• Wireless Standard: 802.11 n (2.4 GHz), up to 150 Mbps
• WiFi Multimedia(WMM)
• WiFi Aggregation: TX/RX A-MPDU, RX A-MSDU
• Immediate Block ACK: suitable for high bandwidth & low latency traffic.
• Automatic Beacon monitoring (hardware TSF)
• Simultaneous support for SoftAP, Infrastructure Station and Promiscuous modes.
• Diverse Antenna
• Defragmentation to smoothen the data.
• Supports 4 virtual WiFi Interfaces.

ESP32 Bluetooth Key Features

• Compliant with Bluetooth v4.2 BR/EDR
• Class-1, Class-2 and Class-3 transmitters without external power amplifier
• Increased Power Control
• Transmission Power: +12 dBm
• BLE sensitivity: –94 dBm (NZIF receiver)
• Adaptive Frequency Hopping (AFH)
• Standard HCI supports SDIO/SPI/UART
• High-speed UART HCI, up to 4 Mbps
• Bluetooth 4.2 BR/EDR BLE dual-mode controller
• CVSD and SBC for audio codec
• Classic BT and BLE support Multiple connections.
• It can advertise and scan simultaneously.
• Bluetooth Piconet and Scatternet

ESP32 Microcontroller Key Features

• ESP32 uses an Xtensa® single-/dual-core 32-bit LX6 microprocessor(s) .
• It supports data rates up to 600 MIPS (200 MIPS for ESP32-S0WD/ESP32-U4WDH)
• It has a Flash Memory of 448 KB.
• It has an SRAM memory of 520 KB.
• 16 KB SRAM in RTC
• QSPI supports multiple flash/SRAM chips.

ESP32 Clocks & Timers Key Features

• ESP32 has a calibrated 8MHz crystal oscillator (internal)
• Calibrated RC oscillator (internal)
• External 2 MHz ~ 60 MHz crystal oscillator (40 MHz only for Wi-Fi/BT functionality)
• External 32 kHz crystal oscillator for RTC with calibration
• Two timer groups, including 2 × 64-bit timers and 1 × main watchdog in each group
• ESP32 also has one RTC timer.
• RTC watchdog is also present in ESP32.

ESP32 Projects & Applications

ESP32 modules have brought a revolution in embedded and especially IoT projects. As these boards are small-sized, low-powered and support both WiFi & BT, thus are gaining popularity in IoT-based handheld devices. A few applications of the ESP32 module are as follows:

• Used in Network projects.
• Employed for beginner-level DIY projects.
• Employed in the prototyping of IoT devices.
• Used in cloud-based smart security projects.
• Used in low-power battery-operated applications.

That was all about the Introduction to ESP32 module. If you have any questions, you can approach me in the comment section below. I’ll help you according to the best of my expertise. You’re most welcome to share your valuable feedback and suggestions around the content we share so we keep coming up with quality content customized to your exact needs and requirements. Thank you for reading the article.

Common Emitter BJT Amplifier in Proteus

Hi Learners, I hope you are doing good. This lesson is about implementation of one of the types of  Amplifiers i.e, Common Emitter BJT Amplifier. But, prior to this, we'll revise some basic concepts so that it will be easy for you to understand the roots of the Experiment. We'll talk about:

1. What are Common Emitter Bi-Junction Transistors.
2. Concepts of Common Emitter Bi-Junction Transistors.
3. Implementation of Common Emitter BJT Amplifiers in Proteus ISIS.
4. Why we use Common Emitter BJT in Amplifiers.

What are Common Emitter Bi-Junction Transistors

There are three types of Configurations of a transistor named:

1. Common Emitter Configuration
2. Common Base Configuration
3. Common Collector Configuration

We chose the Common Emitter Configuration due to its suitability (You will learn the reason). We can Define Basic Common Emitter BJT Amplifier as: "A type of amplifier circuit made by a Bi-Polar junction Transistor that uses NPN BJT Transistor, inverts the voltage output wave at 180 degree and is the one from the three basic BJT amplifier Configuration." Recall that A Transistor is made by combining two diodes in required manner. Hence, It there are two types of Transistors:

1. NPN configuration.
2. PNP Configuration.

Here N is the symbol for Negative doping and P is the symbol for positive doping.

Concepts of Common Emitter Bi-Junction Transistors

At this instance We'll look at some basic concepts, on the basis of which we chose these Components along with the values of Components  of amplifier. Current gain: In BJT Amplifiers, current gain is the ratio of change in collector current to the change in the current of base.

mathematically,           Current Gain= Change in collector current/Change in Base Current

ß=?Ic/?Ib

At the same token, Voltage Gain: The Voltage Gain of an amplifier is the product two Quantities. One is the ratio of output resistance of the collector to the input resistor of the base, and the other is the current gain.

Voltage Gain=ß(Rc/Rb)

During the Practical work we take  AC output voltage from collector with respect to emitter and the Output of Amplifier is taken from Collector. On the other hand, the input is given to the base terminal. It is obvious to notice that the emitter is Common to Base and Collector. It consist of Voltage divider biasing, hence one of the basic part of circuit is consist of two resistors so that their mid-point is used for supply Base Bias voltage. One more importance point to remember is gain is different from one transistor to the other. Biasing: Biasing is a technique  to add the Battery in a circuit. It is important in Electronic devices because it establishes the correct operating point of the Transistor amplifier when it is ready to receive the signal from input and hence the plays an important role in reducing the distortion in the output. If we look at the characteristics then we come to know that Common Emitter BJT Amplifiers has high voltage gain, the current gain is medium and the circuit has a high power gain.

Implementation of Common Emitter BJT Amplifiers in Proteus ISIS

For the practical verification of the circuit It is always Advisable to Perform it at any simulation software. Hence open Your Proteus ISIS. Components Required:

1. NPN transistor (2N171) .
2. Vsine
3. Capacitor
4. Resistor
5. DC Power source
6. ground Terminal
7. Oscilloscope

Procedure:

• Choose 1st four Components from the Pick Library "P" one by one by writing their name in it.
• Collect the DC power supply from "Generator mood" present on the left most tab.
• To get the Ground terminal, left Click on the working screen and go to Place>Terminal>Ground and fix it on the screen.
• Oscilloscope is present in the "Virtual Instrument Mood" on the same tab.
• Once you have chosen all the  required Device  then set them one by one on the Working area according to the Picture given below and connect them with the help of wires.

• At the Instance we will change the values of some devices So I have made a table for this:

• Components	Values
  Resistor R1	60ohm
  Resistor R2	500ohm
  Resistor R3	1000ohm
  Resistor R4	2000ohm
  Resistor R5	100ohm
  Oscilloscope	A=20V, B=2V
  Vsine	Frequency=1000Hz, Amplitude=110V
  DC source	10V

After substituting the value we get the prepared circuit for the amplifier as: It seems that all the things are ready. Once you play the simulation then you can change its values and You will acquire the following output.

• Select the Current probe from the left most bar and connect them in the circuit one with the Base wire and the other with the collector.

One can find the current gain by simply putting the values in the formulas given in the concepts portion.

here,

Current gain=6.2*10^-12/6.1

                             =1.01*10^-9

as it is a ratio, hence has no unit.

At the same token,

Voltage gain=1.01*10^-9*(500/2000)

 =2.5*10^-10

NOTE: The Gain is vary from transistor to transistor and the temperature is also an important feature. Therefore, the gain is always unpredictable.

•  We got the required output in the Proteus ISIS as required.

let's find out why we used this for our experiment.

Why we use BJT in Amplifiers

Common Emitter BJT Amplifiers are important in the World of Electronics. One can get the idea of their influence by the following points:

1. These Amplifiers are used in low frequency voltage amplifier.
2. The are useful because of their high power gain with medium voltage and current gain hence they are cheap.
3. The output impedance is high.
4. It has inverting effect so can be used in the different appliances for different purposes.

In today's tutorial, We learnt what is Common Emitter BJT amplifiers, some basic concepts along with the simulation in the Proteus ISIS. We also saw why these Amplifiers are used in the real life. The circuit and the output may vary for other circuits but don't worry about that because it is a very sensitive circuit.

Introduction to Arduino Beetle

Hi Friends! Hope you’re well today. I welcome you on board. In this post today, I’ll walk you through the Introduction to Arduino Beetle. Arduino beetle is the smallest Arduino board that comes with the functionality of Arduino Leonardo. This board is a remarkable addition to the minimalistic Arduino technology. It is based on the microcontroller Atmel Atmega32u4. With the inception of innovations in modern technology, electronic devices are becoming light, more compact that happen to perform a lot of functions. These devices are economical and require little to no prior knowledge to get your hands dirty with them. All Arduino boards are microcontrollers but not all microcontrollers are Arduino board. While using the Arduino board, you don’t need to attach extra peripherals with the board, as it comes with built-in functions that don’t require the addition of external components. Earlier we have shared the articles on scores of Arduino boards including Arduino Uno, Arduino Leonardo, Arduino Due, and Arduino Mega. You can check these articles to find the basic information about them. I suggest you buckle up, as I’ll walk you through the complete introduction to Arduino Beetle covering datasheet, pinout, pin configuration, features, communication and programming and applications. Let’s jump right in.

Introduction to Arduino Beetle

• Introduced by Arduino.cc, Arduino Beetle is the smallest Arduino Leonardo board that is based on Atmel Atmega32u4.
• The Atmega32u4 is an 8-bit CMOS low power microcontroller
• Arduino.cc offers an open-source platform for everyone which means you can optimize the boards and software programs as you like better.

• The IDE (integrated development environment) is a software used to program the Arduino board. You don’t require prior knowledge and technical skills to start working with this board. The C and C++ are the languages used to program the Arduino beetle.
• Though IDE software is compatible with MAC, Windows, or Linux Systems, Windows is a preferable operating system to use this board.

• This tiny device comes with a micro USB port which means you can directly connect the device with the computer and program it based on your needs and requirements.
• You don’t need a separate burner to burn and run the program on the board as it comes with a pre-burned Bootloader that allows you to upload the code in the hex file of the board.
• The beetle is mainly introduced to provide the solution for low-cost disposable projects including DIY, gift projects, student projects, and e-textile.
• This device operates at 5V and it also functions at 3.7V. Make sure voltage doesn’t exceed 5V else it can damage the device.
• It comes with a clock time 16MHz. Several pins are incorporated on board out of which 10 are digital pins, 4 are PWM pins and 5 are analog pins.
• This module comes with a crystal oscillator frequency up to 16 MHz that is mainly used to produce the clock pulses with decent speed. This oscillator is required for the synchronization of all the internal operations.
• This module supports different communication protocols including I2C and UART.
• The flash memory is 32KB out of which 4KB is used by the Bootloader. It is the memory where the sketch (the program we create on IDE is called a sketch) is stored.
• The SRAM memory is 2.5KB which is the memory where sketch manipulates and produces variables when it operates. And EEPROM memory is 1KB and it is the space used for storing long-term information.
• The price of this board at the time of writing this article is around 8$ which carries all powerful functions like Arduino Leonardo.

Arduino Beetle Datasheet

Before you incorporate this device into your electrical project, it’s wise to go through the datasheet of the device that features the main characteristics of the board. Click the link below to download the datasheet of Arduino beetle.

Arduino Beetle Features and Specifications

The following are the main features and specifications of Arduino beetle.

• Board size 20mm x 22mm.
• Direct testing and uploading program through a micro USB port.
• I/O ports are V-shaped gold plated.
• Two power interfaces that are gold plated and are used to supply power to the board.
• Blue Light blink indicator which indicates the operation of the board.
• Incorporated with Atmel Atmega32u4 microcontroller.
• The operating voltage is 5V and the clock speed is 16MHz.
• There are 5 analog pins, 4 PWM pins, and 10 digital pins on board.
• Micro USB = 1
• UART = 1
• I2C = 1
• EEPROM = 1KB
• SRAM = 2.5 KB
• Flash Memory = 32KB out of which 4KB is used by the Bootloader.
• Write/Erase Cycles: 10,000 Flash/100,000 EEPROM
• Data retention: 20 years at 85°C/ 100 years at 25°C

Arduino Beetle Pin Configuration

Still, reading? Perfect. I hope you’ve got a clear idea about this board. In this section, we’ll cover the pin description of the pins incorporated on the board.

Analog Pins

There are 5 analog pins incorporated on the board. These pins can receive any number of values in contrast to digital pins which receive only two values HIGH and LOW.

PWM Pins

This board doesn’t incorporate DAC (digital to analog converter) but it does incorporate 4 PWM pins which are used to get some of the analog output’s functions. During this PWM (pulse width modulation) process, the board generates analog results with digital means.

Digital Pins

There are total 10 digital pins incorporated on board. These pins are developed to be configured as outputs or inputs based on the requirement. These pins are either ON or OFF. When they are ON they are in HIGH voltage state getting 5V and when they are OFF they are in LOW voltage state getting 0V.

Atmega32u4 Pinout

The following figure shows the pinout diagram of Atmega32u4.

Atmega32u4 Pin Description

In this section, we’ll cover the pin description of each pin incorporated on Atmega32u4.

Vcc

It is a digital voltage supply pin.

GND

This pin is connected to the ground.

Port B (PB7...PB0)

Port B is an 8-bit bidirectional I/O port that is incorporated with pull-up resistors. These resistors are used to limit the current and prevent it exceeding from a certain number. This port comes with efficient driving capabilities compared to other ports. When this port is used as an input, this will source current due to the port pins that are extremely pulled low. This happens when the pull-up resistors are activated.

Port C (PC6, PC7)

Port C is similar to Port B - an 8-bit bidirectional I/O port incorporated with pull-up resistors. When the pull up resistors are activated, Port C will source current with port pins extremely pulled low.

Port D (PD7..PD0)

Port D is an 8-bit bidirectional I/O port that comes with pull-up resistors. When the reset condition meets, the Port D pins are tri-stated.

Port E (PE6, PE2)

Only two bits... PE6 and PE2 are present on the device pinout. It is an 8-bit bidirectional port incorporated with internal pull-up resistors.

Port F (PF7..PF4, PF1,PF0)

Port F is a bidirectional port that acts like analog inputs to the A/D converter. Two bits PF2 and PF3 are not present on the product pinout.

D-

USB Full speed / Low Speed Negative Data Upstream Port. It should be attached to the USB D- connector pin along with the serial resistor 22W.

D+

USB Full speed / Low Speed Positive Data Upstream Port. It is connected to the USB D+ connector pin along with the serial resistor 22W.

UGND

USB pads ground.

UVCC

Regulator Input supply voltage applied to USB pads.

UCAP

Internal Regulator Output supply voltage applied to USB pads.

VBUS

USB VBUS monitor input.

RESET

This is a reset pin. A low level applied to this pin for a longer time will produce a reset. Shorter pulses may not generate a reset.

XTAL1

Input to the internal clock operating circuit and Input to the inverting Oscillator amplifier.

XTAL2

Output from the inverting Oscillator amplifier.

AREF

This is used as the analog reference pin for the A/D Converter.

AVCC

AVCC is the supply voltage pin for all the A/D Converter channels.

Communication and Programming

• Recall, this module supports different communication protocols i.e. I2C, and UART.
• The I2C is a two-wire communication protocol that carries two main lines called SCL and SDA. The former is a serial clock line required for the synchronization of all data transfer over the I2C bus. While the latter is a serial data line mainly employed to carry the data.
• And the UART is mainly used for serial communication and comes with two lines Tx and Rx where the former is used to transfer the serial data and the latter is used to receive the serial data.

Arduino IDE software is used to program all types of Arduino Boards. Attach micro USB to the Beetle and select Arduino Leonardo from your board type on the Arduino IDE software.

Arduino Beetle Applications

This tiny little beast is a full system in a small package as it incorporates almost all functions like Arduino Leonardo. The following are some applications of Arduino Beetle.

• Health and security systems
• Creating a wireless keyboard
• Industrial automation
• Embedded systems
• Student projects
• Automatic pill dispenser
• Water level meter.

You’ll find a lot of microcontrollers in the market that are more economical than the Arduino board. But still, most of the hobbyists and students prefer Arduino Board over microcontroller. The reason is clear. Arduino board comes with a big community that shares expertise and knowledge for a wide range of audiences. Help is readily available that you’ll never find in the case of microcontrollers. Moreover, when you select Arduino board over microcontroller, you don’t need additional components and extra peripherals to connect with the board, as this board comes with a lot of built-in functions, setting you free from the hassle of connecting a lot of components. Simply, you need to plug the device with the computer and play with it on the fly. That’s all for today. I hope you’ve enjoyed reading this article. If you’re unsure or have any questions, you can pop your comment in the section below, I’d love to help you the best way I can. Feel free to share your valuable suggestions and feedback around the content we share so we keep coming up with quality content customized to your exact needs and requirements. Thank you for reading the article.

Common Base BJT Amplifier in Proteus

Hi mentees, Welcome to The Engineering Projects. If you are seeking for the Practical Implementation of Common Base bipolar Junction Transistor amplifier then you clicked at the best website because we'll cover the basic concepts and the procedure step by step. So, Lets start the learning.

What is Common Base BJT Amplifier?

The precise definition of the Common Base BJT Amplifier is: "The type of Bipolar Junction Transistor Amplifiers in which Base is Common to both emitter and Collector and Current gain is taken from the Base is called Common Base bipolar Junction Transistor Amplifiers." Recall that a transistor has three regions i.e, Base, Collector and Emitter. Hence we design our Circuit in such a way that we get the output of current from the base and get the best current gain.

Basic Concepts:

Some Important Concepts should be kept in mind so that it will become easy and interesting to Design the Circuit. Current gain: " The Current gain of Common base Amplifier is equal to the ratio of Current in the Collector to the Current in the Base provided by the constant voltage of base to collector." Mathematically,

Current gain=Collector Current/Base Current

ß=Ic/Ib

Voltage Gain: "The Voltage gain of the Common Base amplifier is obtain when we divide the Voltage of Collector to the voltage of emitter." mathematically,

Voltage Gain=Voltage of Collector/Voltage of Emitter

Av=Vc/Ve

Type of Transistor: In the Common Base amplifiers, we use the NPN transistor because in this way we get the require output more easily. In NPN transistors, majority is the electrons. The mobility of electrons is better than holes (in PNP Transistors) so they are faster. Biasing: Biasing is a technique  to add the Battery in a circuit. It is important in Electronic devices because it establishes the correct operating point of the Transistor amplifier when it is ready to receive the signal from input and hence the plays an important role in reducing the distortion in the output. Common base MUST  correctly Biased so that the base-emitter junction will remain forward Bias. Now, Let's move towards the practical implementation.

 Implementing Common Base BJT Amplifier in Proteus ISIS

To Perform the experiment. we need the Proteus ISIS then follow the steps: Material Require:

1. Transistor (2N1711)
2. Capacitor
3. Alternating Current Source (Vsine)
4. Resistor
5. Oscilloscope
6. Ground.

• Open Your Proteus software in the PC.
• Seek the Pick Library "P" button and write the name of 1st four Components one by one and select them.
• Place the current components on the working area.
• Acquire the Oscilloscope from the "Virtual Instruments mode" from the left most area and fix it just above the circuit.
• You can obtain the Ground Terminal by left click on the screen>Place>Terminal>Ground or just search it in the "Terminal mode".
• Connect all the Components through wires. The circuit looks like the image given below:

• At this instance , Change the name and values of resistors one by one by double clicking them. In this way, the circuit will work Perfectly.

• I labelled all the Resistors with different names and changed the values according to the need.
• At the same token, the name of Capacitor, battery cells and their values are also changed according to the table given below:

Components	Values
Resistor R1	400ohm
Resistor R2	30ohm
Resistor R3	100ohm
Resistor R4	200ohm
BAT	50
BAT 1	200
CIN	2mF
COUT	60uF
Oscilloscope	Channel A=20V, Channel B=20V, time=0.5m-1
VSine	Amplitude 220V, Frequency=1000

• Set all the values according to table.
• Once the values are selected (except Oscilloscope) just Pop the Play button.
• You can see an Oscilloscope screen showing the waves.
• Turn of the Channel C,D to avoid distraction.
• Set the values of Oscilloscope by matching with the table.
•  You will get the output just like shown in the following image:

The Yellow wave (channel A) indicates the input wave were as the Blue Wave (Channel B) indicates the output ( Amplified) wave. Hence by If we choose the Components and there value carefully, we get the best output. Lets Calculate the Current gain then Voltage Gain. I am using the previously Described precepts to calculate the Quantities:

• Connect the DC Ammeter from the "Generation Mode" and Connect one with the Base of transistor and one with the Collector.
• When we play the Simulation then we get the following Output:

Applying the values into the formula we get,

ß        =-1.43/-0.07

 =20.4

As it's a ratio so it doesn't have any unit. Moving towards the Voltage Gain,

• Take the "DC Voltmeter" from the same Portion and connect one Voltmeter with CIN capacitor and one with the COUT Capacitor. Note than the Voltmeter is always Connected in parallel to the required Components.

At the moment, When we start the simulation, we get the following output: Applying these Values for Av,

Av=53.1/3.75

    =14.16

So that the required Quantities are obtained.

Characteristics of Common Base BJT Amplifiers:

• It has High Voltage Gain.
• The Current Gain of Common Base BJT Amplifiers is Medium.
• We get High power Gain in this type of Amplifier.
• Common Base Amplifier does not have any reversal effect between input and output waves.
• The Input and Output resistance of the Common Base Amplifier is Medium.

Advantages:

• We Get the inverted output wave that may be useful in many electronic devices.
• The Input Impedance is Low.
• It is useful due to its high power gain.
• The output Impedance is High for Common Base Bipolar Junction Transistor Amplifiers.
• The Output Impedance is high.
• When we need  Impedance matching then CB Amplifiers are useful because we can control the input Impedance.
• It Provides the constant Current Gain therefore can be used as buffer amplifiers.

Thus Today we Learnt about the Common Base Bipolar Junction Transistor Amplifiers, cleared Some Basic Concepts about them, Implement the Amplifiers in Proteus ISIS and read about the characteristics and advantages of the Common Base Bipolar Junction Transistors Amplifiers.