The Engineering Projects

What is the Current Source

Hello friends, I hope you all are doing great. In today’s tutorial, we will discuss What is the Current Source. In an electrical system, there are two main sources first one is a voltage source and the other one is the current source. There are further two types of current sources real and ideal current source. The current produced by the ideal current source has the same value irrespective the variation in the circuitry voltage. As the current of the ideal source does not depend on any parameter of circuitry like the voltage, resistance, so it also called independent source. The current source is the correspondent of the voltage source. In today's post, we will have a look at its working, types, circuits, ideal sources and some other related factors. So let's get started with the what is the current source.

What is the Current Source

• The Current Source is an active component of the circuitry that provides the constant current in a circuit irrespective of the variation in the voltage of the circuitry.
• From the definition of the current source, we can conclude that it is the ideal source. But, in real-world, there are no ideal sources exits.
• For example, it can explain that if we connect an ideal source with open circuitry it will not work.

• There are two main factors that described the working of the practical current source. First is its inner resistance and other is compliance voltage.
• The maximum voltage that the current source can deliver to the load is called compliance voltage.
• During the variation in the load the current source work like ideal source, provides the unlimited resistance but, when the voltage value at the output reaches to compliance voltage, then it starts to behave like a real source and provides the limited value of resistance.

Ideal Current Source

• The current source that has unlimited resistance and delivers the same value of the current to load.
• Similar to the voltage source the ideal current sources has two types of dependent and independent current sources.
• The independent sources are such devices that used to resolve such circuitries that have active components like transistors, diodes, etc.
• The simple example of the current source is the resistance that is connected with the voltage source to produce a small value of the current from a few mA to hundred ampers.

Connections of the Current Source

• The current sources can be joined with one another to increment and decrement in the value of the current.
• There are two methods by that they are connected with each other according to the circuitry demand. First one is a series and the other is parallel.
• Let's discuss these two connections methods one by one.

Current Source in Parallel

• You can see in the given diagram that the 2 current sources are connected parallel. Parallel connected current sources behave like a single source and its output is the sum of the currents of 2 sources.

• In given circuitry, there are 2 five ampers current sources are connected in parallel the output current will be the sum of these two sources current that is ten amperes.
• The sources that have different values can also connect parallel, like if we connect 10-amper and 8-ampere sources in parallel there output will be 18 amperes.

Parallel Opposing Current Sources

• Now we study what will be the effect if we connect the source in the opposite direction.
• In given circuitry two 10 amperes current sources are connected in parallel. The method to get the output of such circuitry is to subtract the value of the 2 current sources, in the given diagram the first circuitry will have zero current.
• In 2nd circuitry there is two parallel-connected circuitry that has 10 amperes and 5-ampere current value, their output will be 5 amperes.

Current Sources in Series

• Now we discuss the behaviour of the series-connected current sources.
• It is not good to connect current sources in a series.
• The reason is that the series-connected sources output current do not follow the addition and subtraction rule.
• In given circuitry, there are 2 ten amperes current source are connected in series their output can not be 20 amperes in series combination.

Practical Current Source

• As we have discussed above that the ideal current source provides the constant current irrespective of the variation in the output load. Due to this fact it also is known as the independent source.
• So we can say that the ideal current source has unlimited value of the resistance.

• Theoretically, an ideal source is exiting but practically the current source have larger value resistance but not infinity like the ideal source.
• The practical current sink can be constructed like an ideal source if it is linked with the inner resistance in parallel.
• In given circuitry, the resistance (R1) produce the same effect that the resistance connected in parallel with ideal source do.
• As these two circuitries are equivalent so the voltage drop value will also similar.
• You can see from the diagram that circuitry of the real source looks like an equivalent circuitry of the Norton, Norton says that any circuitry can be substituted with such circuitry that has one resistance and parallel source with it.
• If the value of the resistance (R1) is higher or unlimited then practical source looks like an ideal source.

Comparison between Current and Voltage Sources

Voltage Source

• Mostly electric power source like battery and electric supply in our homes are known as the voltage source.
• All of these sources deliver the same value of the voltage, as the current passing through the circuitry within limits.
• In case of open circuitry, ideal source delivers 0 power but when it is short-circuited it has unlimited power.
• An ideal source has 0 value of resistance when it connected in series circuitry.
• The practical source has some value of resistance but not zero, almost less than one O.
• Try to avoid the use of the ideal sink in the short-circuited arrangments, and not connect it with such source whose voltage value is not similar to the ideal source.

 Current Source

• Current source delivers the same value of the current, till that point the resistance of the load is very less.
• In the case of the short-circuited conditions, the ideal current delivers 0 power but in case of the open circuitry, it gives the unlimited value of power and voltage.
•  Contrary to the ideal sink the practical current sink has the higher but the limited value of the resistance.
• Like voltage source try to avoid the use of the ideal current sink in open-circuited arrangements and with a source that does not have similar current to the ideal source. But sometimes such arrangments used for complementary metal oxides semiconductor circuitries.

It is the detailed article on the current source, I have each and everything related to the current source. If you have any question about voltage source ask in comments. Thanks for reading take care till the next tutorial.    

What is the Voltage Source

Hello friends, I hope you all are doing great. In today’s tutorial, we will discuss What is the Voltage Source. The source is a device that transformed thermal energy, chemical energy, mechanical energy or any type of energy in the electrical form of energy. We can say that the source is such an instrument manufactured for generating electrical power. The voltage source has 2 endpoints by which it connects in the circuitry, the ideal voltage source gives the constant value of the voltage in a circuitry irrespective of the variation in the resistance of the output. While non-ideal voltage source cannot provide the same voltage to the circuitry during load variation. The voltage source is the correspondent of the current source. This eclectic source ( voltage source) can be classified as the direct current or alternating current sources, the source which provides the constant value of voltage is called dc and other is called alternating source in this source polarity of voltage changes after some interval of time like sine waveform. The battery is the example of the direct current (DC) source and the power supplies in our homes is known (AC) sources. In today's post, we will have a look at its circuit, types, use and working. So, let's get started with what is the voltage source.

What is the Voltage Source

• The voltage source is an instrument which delivers the constant value of voltage in a circuitry irrespective of the variation in the resistance offered by the load.
• Such voltage source is also named as an ideal voltage source. In real-world such voltage source can be created, by assigning the 0 inner resistance and it can deliver constant voltage.

• The graphical representation of the ideal source is drawn in the figure. You can see that it is the straight line at any point of the time axis.
• If there is some quantity of internal resistance is exiting in the source then it is named as a real voltage source.
• As there is inner resistance is present in the source this causes to loss of voltage in the circuitry according to the value of this resistance in the circuitry.
• The graphical representation of the practical voltage source is drawn in the given diagram.

Types of Voltage Source

• There are the two main types of the voltage source first one is dependent source and other is the independent.
• The dependent voltage source has further two types.
  • Voltage control voltage source
  • current control  current source
• Independent source also has two catagories.
  • DC Voltage source
  • AC voltage source
• Now discuss all these categories one by one

Independent Voltage Source

• This voltage source provides the constant value of the voltage, its voltage value does not depend on the other parameters of circuitry like resistance, or capacitance of the circuitry.

 DC Voltage Source

• This voltage source provides the constant voltage at the output is called a dc source.
• In this source, the electrons move in the same direction, so its polarity will not vary.
• The output voltage of this source will remain the same, it will not vary with the time.
• The examples of the dc voltage sources are the direct current generator, battery, or cell.

Alternating Voltage Source

• Such voltage source generates the AC current as output is known as the alternating source.
• In this source the polarity of voltage changes after a specific interval of time.
• Due to the variation in the voltage for after some time current also changes its direction.
• Examples of such sources are Ac generators or direct current to alternating current converter
• The given diagram shows the circuit of the alternating voltage source.

Dependent Voltage Sources

• The output of the source does not remain constant but continuously vary is called a dependent voltage source.
• Its output voltage varies according to the changing in the other parameters of circuitry like current, resistance.
• If the voltage of the source depends on the voltages of other components of the circuitry then it called voltage-controlled voltage source.
• If the value of the voltages of the voltage source depends on the current of the other components then it known as the current-controlled voltage source.
• The given diagram shows all these voltage sources.

Comparison Between Voltage Source and Current Source

Voltage source

• Mostly sources of electrical power like battery are known as a voltage source.
• In case of open circuitry, the ideal source delivers no power, in case of short circuitry it gives infinite power.
• This ideal device has the 0-ohm internal resistance but the practical source has less value of inner resistance but not zero.

Current Source

• The current source delivers the non-variable current when the connected load has less value of resistance.
• In the case of the short circuitry, the ideal source delivers the no power, but in case of open circuit, its power value becomes infinity.
• The ideal source has infinite resistance value and the practical source has high but in some limit value of the resistance.

Ideal Voltage Source

• The source which has no interior resistor (R) is named as an ideal source.
• It incomes that there is no voltage drop in the source, due to this we get the same voltage at output points which were produced by the source.
• Each practical (applied) voltage source like the battery has some value of resistor which causes to drop of voltage.
• To understand the practical difference among the ideal and practical source we discuss an example.
• In case of ideal source, if we have five volts battery, it will give five volts at output points as it has no internal resistance.
• But in case of practical voltage source, we do not get five volts at terminals due to some loss of voltage at interior resistance ®.

It is the detailed article about the voltage source if you have any question about it ask in comments. Thanks for reading. Take care until the next tutorial.  

What is Magnetic Hysteresis

Hello friends, I hope you all are doing great. In today’s tutorial, we will discuss What is Magnetic Hysteresis. Hysteresis occurs in different substances due to the 2 different factors first one is magnetization of the material and second is the variation in the quantity of the magnetic domains of the material (it is the part of any magnetic substance where the magnetization is uniform). All magnet do not show the same magnetizing property throughout its structure, but it varied continuously. In small size magnets, magnetization is same in the complete structure. While in the large size magnet the magnetization is not similar throughout the complete structure, due to different magnetization they are distributed into the different areas that are known as the domains. In these domains the magnetization is alike but there is an area among the domains where the domains are not aligned in a similar fashion. In today's post, we will have a look at the fact of these domains in the magnetic substance and how they produce the hysteresis in materials. So let's get started with What is Magnetic Hysteresis.

What is Magnetic Hysteresis

• When the exterior magnetic field is provided to the ferromagnetic substance like iron, the dipoles of different iron's atom arrange themselves with the direction of the applied magnetic field this fact is known as magnetic hysteresis.

• When we eliminate the field around the iron material it still shows magnetic properties due to the alignments of the domains of the iron.
• To extract the residual magnetic properties, there is a need of some heat or magnetic field is provided with different polarity.
• The graphical representation among the magnetic field intensity H and magnetization M of the ferromagnetic material is shown in a given figure.
• You can see from the figure that the magnetization of the material increases first then it get saturated and there is no further increase in with the field intensity increment.
• When we demagnetize the magnetic element its magnetization curve does not follow the field intensity H, but it has some value when the external field is zero.
• This feature of the material to have some amount of the magnetization is known as the remanence.
• The curve constituted by association of the magnetization M and field intensity H is recognized as the hysteresis loop. The area of the loop depends on the magnetization material in case of the iron it will be larger.
• If you see the given curve you will observe that it is not linear but there are a lot of turns in the curve that called Barkhausen jumps (it is a line to which the curve meets).

Magnetization and Field Intensity Curve

• In the given diagram, the magnetization and field intensity curve of the steel and iron is drawn.
• We can observe from the figure that the magnetization of the materials increases with the increment of the field intensity after some time the increment in the flux density decreases while still, the intensity of the field is increasing.

• It is because all domains of the materials have become aligned with the external field, so there is no further increase in the magnetization of the substance this point at the curve is known as the saturation region.

Retentivity

• For the explanation, suppose that we have a wire of the iron and it is connected with the battery and all the domains are aligned with the external field and the conductor is fully magnetized.
• Now if we remove the external power source from the conductor, then the iron should be totally demagnetized, but it did not happen.
• It is due to some residual magnetization of the material, this property of any material to have some magnetization when it is not connected with the battery is known as the retentivity.
• The reason for this is that some domains of the wire are still magnetized instead of the removal of the battery from the terminals of the conductive wire.
• The amount of retentivity is different for the different materials like steel gets demagnetized very soon but in the case of iron, its value is higher.
• To magnetize any material we need to provide the magnetic field intensity with the opposite polarity.
• The force provided by the opposite polarity magnetic field is known as the coercive force.

Soft Magnetic Material

• When we removed the external field from any conductor then it still has some magnetization properties the value of the magnetization is different for different materials. To demagnetize the substance we provide the external field with opposite polarity.
• The amount of the force need to demagnetize is known as the hysteresis loos.
• The value of this energy is different for different materials like in steel its value is less so it called soft magnetic materials.
• The curve for these materials has less area.

Hard Magnetic Materials

• There is another type of materials that required a large amount of the energy for demagnetization and have larger area are known as the hard magnetic materials.
• The coercive force of these materials is larger than the soft magnetic material.

• The energy required for the demagnetization of these materials is larger than the soft materials.
• The curve for these materials is shown in the given figure.

Applications of the Magnetic Hysteresis

• These are some applications of the magnetic hysteresis
• Mostly motor driver circuits are constructed by the hard magnetic materials.
• Speakes, tape recorders are made by such materials that have higher magnetic properties.
• Our personals computers are also used for magnetic substances.
• Different electronic instruments like energy meter, sensing devices also used hard magnetic materials.
• In medical devices like MRI also used hard magnetic substances.
• Soft magnetic material is used in the transformer core because they can easily magnetize and demagnetized.

It is the detailed article on the magnetic hysteresis I have explained each and everything related to magnetic hysteresis if you have any question ask in comments. Thanks for reading. Take care until the next tutorial.  

Transistor as a Switch

Hello friends, I hope you all are doing great. In today’s tutorial, we will have a look at Transistor as a Switch. The transistor is a 3 pin semiconductor module used for different amplifier and switching circuits. It was created by William Shockley (who was a physicist of United States of America) in 1947. It also used in different engineering projects and circuitry. Depending on doping level transistors are classified into 2 types first one NPN and the second one is PNP transistor. Most transistors are constructed from silicon and germanium but other semiconductor materials are also used for construction of transistors. In today's post, we will discuss how we can use a transistor as a switch and also see its practical working in different circuits. So let's get started with Transistor as a Switch.

Transistor as a Switch

•  For understanding the working of a transistor as switch we use bipolar junction transistor (BJT) and will construct its current versus voltage curve.
• There are 3 regions in which transistor operates the first one is active, second one is saturation and third one is cut-off region.
•  In the first region that is active regions, transistor operates as an amplifier.
• But in other 2 regions that are saturation region in which transistor is in on state and cut-off region in which transistor is off, work as a switch.
• Now we discuss these three regions one by one with detailed.

Transistor Operation Region

• In the given figure the current and voltage characteristics curve is shown.

• In this curve you can see that the portion at the below of curve has pink colour is denoted as Cut-off portion and blue colour portion is known as saturation portion of the transistor.

Let's discuss these two regions of transistors with detailed. Transistor Cut-off Region 

• In this operation region of a transistor the value of current at base is zero (IB=0) so the value of current at collector will also 0.
• The value of voltage across the collecter and emitter terminals (VCE) is higher that cause to make larger depletion layer in the transistor and zero current flows through the component.
• So the transistor is completely off meant it is an open cirucit.

Transistor Saturation Region

• In this portion, the transistor will have such biasing that the amount of current at base terminal is maximum that causes to flow extreme current through the collector.
• The value of the voltage at collector and emitter terminals will be zero so there will be no depletion layer and a large amount of current will passes through the transistor and it behaves like a closed switch.
• In a simple way, we can define saturation region as it will occur when the current flows through the collector are extreme and the voltage across base terminals is 0.7 volts it is for NPN transistor.

• In the case of PNP, the emitter should be connected with a positive terminal of battery.

Working of Transistor as Switch

• For a practical understanding of transistor as a switch we discuss a circuit that is shown in a given figure.

• In this circuit, NPN transistor is used as a switch its collector and emitter is points are working as terminals of switch.
• A circuit that consists of the bulb as load is connected with the collector and emitter terminals of transistor.
• The base and emitter of transistor working as a controller that decides open and closed condition of switch.
•  For closed the switch the battery is connected between base and emitter terminals.

• This source provides large amount of base current due to that collector current flows in the collector and emitter circuitry.
• The value of collector current will be larger if the resistance between collector and emitter is almost zero.
• In the above figure, you can see that emitter is at ground potential so we can also suppose that collector is also zero potential. So, in this case, resultant circuit can be constructed as.

• You can see that terminal of switch that are collector and emitter are closed and bulb is illuminating as a large collector current flowing through it.
• To open the terminals of switch we remove the current passing through the base.
• As Ic=ßIb so due to zero value of base current the collector current also zero and it behave like an open switch.

Applications of Transistor as a Switch

• The structure of a transistor is such that collector current will not flow until there is no source of current at base.
• Due to this feature, it mostly used in different electronics circuitry as a switch.
• So we discuss such circuits that used transistor as a switch, for an explanation of such circuits we use NPN transistor.

Light-Operated Switch

• In given below circuit transistor is used as switch for on and off bulb. In this circuitry there is LDR, bulb and voltage divider circuitry is formed.
• This circuitry is operated in light and in dark it does not work.
• When photons of light collide with light-dependent resistance it starts to operate and current flows through base than collector that glows the bulb.

Heat-Operated Switch

• In given below the transistor is used in heat operated switch the main element of this circuitry is a thermistor.
• A thermistor is a type of resistance that operates with the variation of temperature.
• There is an increment in its resistance with the decrement in temperature and with the increment of temperature resistance decreases.
• So in this circuitry when temperature increases the resistance of thermistor decreases so base current starts to flow that causes the movement of current through the circuit.
• Then at output alarm starts to operate after receiving a signal from the transistor.

That is a detailed article on transistor as a switch if you have any question about it ask in comments. Thanks for reading.

HC-05 Bluetooth Module Pinout, Datasheet, Features & Applications

Hello friends, I hope you all are doing great. Today, we will discuss HC-05 Bluetooth Module in detail. We will also study HC-05 Pinout, Datasheet, Features & Projects. HC05 is a Bluetooth module, that works on Serial Protocol ( RX/TX ) for sending and receiving data. We have also designed Bluetooth Library for Proteus, which will help you in simulating this Bluetooth Module in Proteus software.

HC05 Bluetooth Module consists of CSR Bluecore 04 outer single-chip Bluetooth system having CMOS (complementary metal-oxide-semiconductor) technology. This module also fulfils the Bluetooth V2.0+EDR technology. So let's get started with Introduction to HC-05.

Where To Buy?
No.	Components	Distributor	Link To Buy
1	HC-05	Amazon	Buy Now

HC-05 Bluetooth Module

• HC-05 Bluetooth Module is a low-cost, easy-to-operate & small-sized module used for wireless communication in the Bluetooth spectrum.
• It supports Serial Port Protocol (SPP), which helps in sending/receiving data to/from a microcontroller (i.e. Arduino UNO).
• Its default baud rate is 9600 for data communication and 38400 for command mode communication.
• HC05 can operate in master/slave mode and thus multiple slave nodes can be controlled using a single master node (called mesh networking).
• HC-05 supports "AT commands", controlled by TX (transmission) and RX (receiver) pinouts.
• You should also have a look at Arduino Bluetooth Communication using HC05.

HC-05 Pinout

• HC-05 Pinouts are used for powering up the module and sending/receiving data via Serial Port.
• So, let's have a look at HC-05 Pinout, shown in below table:

HC-05 Pinout
Pin#	Pin Name	Working
Pin#1	Enable Pin	The purpose of this pinout is to set data value at a high and low level.
Pin#2	Vcc	At this pinout, the input supply is provided to the module. Its operating voltage is plus five volts.
Pin#3	GND	Ground (0V)
Pin#4	TX	Serial Transmitting Pin.
Pin#5	RX	Serial Receiving Pin
Pin#6	State	This Pin is connected to an LED, shows the operating state of the HC-05 Bluetooth module.

• Here's the image, where I have labelled HC-05 Pinout:

• In the above figure, I have labelled 7. LED, which tells about different states of Bluetooth module:
  • If it's blinking once in two seconds, it has received a command.
  • If it's blinking continuously, means the module is waiting for input data.
  • If it's blinking twice in one second, means it's connected properly.

HC-05 Datasheet

• You can download the HC-05 datasheet by clicking the below button:

HC-05 Features

• HC05 follows the "Bluetooth V2.0+EDR" protocol (EDR stands for Enhanced Data Rate).
• Its operating frequency is 2.4 GHz ISM Band.
• HC05 uses CSR Bluecore 04-External single-chip Bluetooth system with CMOS technology.
• This module follows the IEEE (Institute of Electrical and Electronics Engineers) 802.15.1 standard protocol.
• Dimensions of HC-05 are 12.7mmx27mm.
• Its operating voltage is 5V.
• It sends and receives data by UART, which is also used for setting the baud rate.
• it has -80dBm sensitivity.
• This module also uses (FHSS), a technique by which a radio signal is sent at different frequency levels.
• This module has the ability to work as a master/slave mode.
• This module can be easily connected with a laptop or mobile phone via Bluetooth.

HC-05 Working

• HC-05 is normally used in embedded projects, where data needs to be transmitted wirelessly over a small distance.
• We can transmit data between two HC-05 modules and can also send data from HC-05 to any Bluetooth appliance i.e. mobile phone, laptop etc.
• In order to do so, first of all, we need to power up our HC-05 module, as shown in below figure:

• As we push the button connected to Key Pin, it will get LOW & HC-05 will start blinking.
• Now, if you check on your mobile phone or laptop, you will be able to find a new Bluetooth device named HC-05.
• Once you connected with this device, you will be able to send and receive data in a serial stream manner.
• This stream is then processed by a microcontroller (i.e. Arduino UNO) attached with HC-05.
• However, do not expect this module to transfer multimedia like photos or songs; you might have to look into the CSR8645 module for that.

HC-05 Arduino Interfacing

• HC-05 has 2 working modes:
  • Data Mode: HC05 sends and receives data via Bluetooth spectrum and then further processes it to Serial Pins.
  • Command Mode: HC-05 waits for AT (ATtention) commands, acts accordingly & then sends the response in return.
• This module uses SPP (Serial Port Protocol) for the transmission of data so it can be easily interfaced with any microcontroller.
•  For HC-05 Arduino Interfacing:
  • 5V to Vcc Pin.
  • 0V to GND Pin.
  • RX (receiver) pin of HC-05 with the TX (transmitter) pin of UNO.
  • TX pin of the HC-05 with the RX pin of UNO.

HC-05 Applications

Now, let's have a look at HC-05 Applications, it can be used in various ways, here I have mentioned few of them:

• HC-05 Bluetooth Module is normally used for wireless data transmission among multiple microcontrollers.
• It can also be used to communicate between electronic devices like mobile, laptop, computers for data transmission.
• It also used in different information and data logging applications.
• It's used in robotics for wireless control.
• It's used in autonomous projects for collecting data.

So, that was all about the HC05 Bluetooth Module. I have tried my best to explain everything related to this module but if you have any question, ask in the comments. Thanks for reading. Have a good day. :)