The Engineering Projects

Half Adder with Universal Logic Gates

Hello Pupils! I welcome you to The Engineering Projects. I hope you are having a good day. In our previous lecture, we discussed Half-Adder Circuit Designing with XOR and AND logic gates. Today, we are going to design the same circuit using universal logic gates i.e. NOR and NAND gates.

We are going to learn the following topics, in today's lecture:

1. What is Adder?
2. What is Half Adder?
3. How can We make Half Adder Circuit through NAND Gate?
4. How can We make Half Adder through just NOR Gate?

Hence without wasting time, Let's find all the Answers.

What is Adder?

As we discussed in the last lecture, the DLD Adder is a simple electronic circuit, used to add binary numbers in bit form.

There are two types of DLD Adders, named:

1. Half Adder
2. Full Adder

In this article, we'll focus on the Half Adder only.

What is Half Adder?

Let's recall it as well from our previous lecture, a Half Adder is a simple electronic circuit, designed with logic gates and is used to add two binary numbers. It generates two output bits i.e. Sum Bit and Carry Bit.

In our previous lecture, we designed the Half Adder using two types of Logic Gates i.e. AND and XOR but today, we are going to use a single type of logic gate(Universal Gate) to design a Half Adder. As we know there are two universal gates in DLD i.e. NOR and NAND. So, we will design the Half Adder circuit with both of these Universal Gates, shown in the below figure:

Truth Table of Half Adder

• The Truth Table of the Half Adder is shown in the below table:
  

Input		Output
A	B	Sum	C0
0	0	0	0
0	1	1	0
1	0	1	0
1	1	0	1

Half Adder with NAND Gate

Let's first recall the NAND Gate:

"A NAND Gate is an inversion of AND Gate and gives LOW output if all of its Inputs are HIGH, otherwise gives HIGH output".

The Truth Table of NAND Gate is shown below:

A	B	(A.B)'
0	0	1
0	1	1
1	0	1
1	1	0

Let's rush towards the Proteus software to run our Half Adder.

Components Required

We will need the following components to design Half Adde circuit in Proteus:

1. NAND Gate
2. Logic Toggle
3. LED
4. Ground Terminal

Proteus Simulation of Half Adder

• Here's the Circuit Diagram of the Half Adder with the NAND gate in Proteus:
  

• For designing the Half Adder circuit, we'll need 5 NAND gates in total, so get them from Proteus Library and place them in the Workspace, as shown in the above figure.
• I have used two Logic States at the Inputs and two LEDs at the Outputs.

In order to understand this Half Adder circuit, let's create a truth table of output at each NAND Gate:

Input		Output
A	B	1	2	3	4(SUM)	5(CARRY)
0	0	1	1	1	0	0
0	1	1	1	0	1	0
1	0	1	0	1	1	0
1	1	0	1	1	0	1

 

Half Adder with NOR Gate

Let's recall the NOR Gate from our previous lecture:

"A NOR Gate is an inversion of the OR Gate and gives HIGH Output only if all of its Inputs are LOW, otherwise it gives LOW".

The Truth Table of NOR Gate is as follows:

A	B	(A+B)’
0	0	0
0	1	0
1	0	0
1	1	1

To implement the Half Adder with NOR Gate, we are going to use the below components:

Components Required:

1. NOR Gate.
2. Logic Toggle.
3. LED.
4. Ground Terminal.
5. Connecting wires.

Proteus Simulation of Half Adder

Here's the circuit diagram of the Half Adder with NOR logic gate:

As you can see in the above figure, we have used 5 NOR gates in total and have placed logic states at the inputs and LEDs at the outputs.

Here's the truth table of Half Adder with NOR Gate:

Input		Output
A	B	1	2	3	4(SUM)	5(CARRY)
0	0	1	1	1	0	0
0	1	0	0	1	1	0
1	0	1	0	0	1	0
1	1	0	0	0	0	1

So, that was all for today. In the next lecture, we will discuss the 2-Bit Full Adder in detail and will simulate it in Proteus. Thanks for reading.

6 Ideas for Establishing an Engineering Consulting Firm

Hello friends! Welcome to another useful article of The Engineering Projects. I hope you are having a shinning day. Let's add some reproductive information in your day. Today we'll grasp about the establishment skills in Engineering Consultant Firm. Consequently, we'll learn about 6 tremendous ideas for the Establishment an Engineering Consultant. Starting any business can be difficult. As a matter of fact, some individuals state that around a third of new enterprises fail within the first year of operation. From there, this does not get any easier. These numbers increase to half by the second year of running a business. This might put you off when you decide to start your engineering consulting firms. However, you can make an engineering consulting company a success by considering the below ideas:

Be Strategic About Scheduling and Quoting

Quoting projects for the first time is challenging, though asking individuals who carried out the same tasks would be great to start. The best thing you may do for your clients is to meet them where they are. Many of your clients will be entrepreneurs who have a specified budget for work they need to be completed. Scheduling projects will also depend on your bandwidth. It will not benefit anyone when you have a lot of work that you can hardly handle. If you can quote for more time, clients will be happier when you deliver their projects early.

Learn How to Reduce Costs

Most organizations choose to implement CMMS in an attempt to decrease maintenance costs as well as enhance their bottom line in different ways. Therefore, what is CMMS software? Well, the software is a system, which facilitates the upkeep operations and centralizes maintenance information. This will help optimize the availability and utilization of physical equipment, such as plant infrastructures, communications, vehicles, and machinery. Your CMMS can also help you decrease the total number of reactive maintenance and unplanned breakdowns of your machines.

Gain Skills

When starting an engineering consulting company, you will need the necessary skills. After you decide on the value proposition, you need to gain the right skills and necessary knowledge. You should also be a degree holder. Engineers with a degree certificate are likely to establish their own firms. Later on, they may pursue a degree in management so as to acquire skills and learn how to work.

Have a Plan

When writing a plan for your engineering consulting company, you may include an executive summary, which explains your experience. Moreover, you may include the goals of your business and an explanation regarding your engineering company. You can as well offer detailed monetary information about your engineering consulting company.

Delegate Work

Regardless of which maintenance strategy you have, your maintenance team may need to deal with unplanned work. Human error, machine malfunctions, natural disasters, and accidents are some of the things you may not avoid completely. However, assigning projects to work orders will help technicians choose which work should be completed first. This may be important in emergencies when you require every hand on deck. In such a situation, you may use a mobile CMMS so as to send a push notification and develop a work order to every technician.

Consider Content Marketing

Inbound marketing is constructed around four different phases, including converting, delighting, closing, and attracting. Basically, you have to lure visitors to your site, close sales, delight clients, and convert customers into quality leads. The top-secret to effective inbound marketing lies in using the right messaging and content to target the correct audience in real-time. This will need a working knowledge of buyer personas. When it comes to engineering consulting companies, buyer personas tend to be disparities on decision-makers in construction firms, real estate developers, architectural organizations, and government agencies. In your buyer persona, you may include other useful details related to purchasers' motivations and demographic profile.

Concluding Remarks!

As an engineer, it’s not a must you work in an established engineering company. Immediately you have the experience to work in your specialty, you may launch your own firm. Whether you are a structural, mechanical, electrical, civil, and computer engineer, you may start a new engineering consulting firm. If you want to develop many engineering projects and establish a client list, you can consider some of these ideas.

Introduction to Arduino Nano 33 IoT

Hi Guys! Hope you’re well today. Happy to see you around. In this post today, I’ll walk you through the Introduction to Arduino Nano 33 IoT. Arduino Nano 33 IoT is mainly used in basic IoT applications. The Internet of things is one of the most exciting and robust developments in the field of information technology. Using this technology you can interface a network of physical things with software, sensors, or other technologies to develop communication and data exchange between devices and other systems using the internet. For example, you can control the room temperature by interfacing the sensors in your rooms with your smartphone through WiFi. Traditional systems including control systems, wireless sensor networks, embedded systems, and home automation all contribute to activating the internet of things. Over the past two decades, networking technologies have been commonly restricted to traditional devices like desktop computers, laptops, and more recently tablets and smartphones. With the inception of innovative technologies, IoT continues to cover scores of devices into the network including medical devices, household appliances, vehicles, electric motors, traffic controls, street lights, smart TVs, and much more. At Arduino, you can either generate your own Arduino Access Point or connect the board with any existing WiFi network. I suggest you buckle up, as I’ll detail the Complete Introduction to Arduino Nano 33 IoT covering pinout, pin description, features, programming, and applications. Let’s get started.

Introduction to Arduino Nano 33 IoT

• Arduino Nano 33 IoT is a microcontroller board based on low power Arm® Cortex®-M0 32-bit SAMD21.
• This board features a u-blox, the NINA-W10 that is a low-power chipset mainly employed to develop Bluetooth and WiFi connectivity.

• With this device, you’ll also get a 6 axis IMU that makes this device an ideal fit for pedometers, vibration alarm systems, and the relative positioning of robots.
• Moreover, this device contains a Microchip® ECC608 crypto chip that stores the cryptographic keys in hardware and guarantees secure and safe communication.
• Visit WiFiNINA library reference page and get a hold of several certain examples available for Arduino Nano 33 IoT.
• This device is completely compatible with the Arduino IoT cloud. You can use the Arduino IoT cloud for free – a simple and efficient way to guarantee safe and secure communication over all connected devices.

• There are 14 digital I/O pins, 8 analog pins, and 11 PWM pins incorporated on board.
• The board contains Flash memory of 256KB. This memory is used to store the Arduino Program (sketch). While the SRAM memory is 32KB that is used to produce and manipulate variables when it runs. There is no EEPROM available on this board.
• The clock frequency of an oscillator is 48MHz which is used for the synchronization of all internal functions.

Arduino Nano 33 IoT Pinout

The following figure shows the pinout diagram of Arduino Nano 33 IoT. The board contains two LEDs i.e. one is a built-in LED connected to pin 13 of the board and the other is the power LED that turns on when power is supplied to the board.

Arduino Nano 33 IoT Pin Description

This is the little introduction to Nano 33. In this section, we will detail the pin description of each pin incorporated on the board.

Digital Pins

The Nano 33 board contains 14 digital pins that you can use as input or output depending on the requirement. These pins receive only two values HIGH or LOW. When pins receive 0V they are in a LOW state when they receive 5V they remain in the HIGH state.

Analog Pins

This board carries 8 analog pins. These pins can receive any value in contrast to digital pins that receive only two values i.e. HIGH or LOW.

PWM Pins

The Nano 33 board features 11 PWM pins. These pins, when activated, generate analog results with digital means.

SPI Pins

This is the serial peripheral interface that is used to develop communication between a controller and other peripheral devices like shift registers or sensors. Two pins: MISO (Master Input Slave Output) and MOSI (Master Output Slave Input) are incorporated for SPI communication between devices. These pins are used to send or receive data by the controller.

I2C Pins

The Nano 33 contains the I2C two-wire communication protocol. It carries two pins SDA and SDL. The SDA is a serial data pin used to carry the data while SCL is a serial clock line used to synchronize all data transfer over the I2C bus. The I2C protocol is used to develop communication between two or more integrated circuits.

UART Pins

This board supports UART serial communication protocol with two pins Tx and Rx. The Tx pin is a transmission pin used to transmit serial data while Rx is a receiving pin mainly employed to receive the serial data.

Arduino Nano 33 IoT Features

• Microcontroller = SAMD21 Cortex®-M0+ 32bit low power ARM MCU
• Secure Element = ATECC608A
• Oscillator = 48 MHz
• Radio module = u-blox NINA-W102
• Input Voltage (limit) = 21V
• Flash Memory = 256KB
• SRAM = 32KB
• EEPROM = no
• DC Current per I/O Pin = 7mA
• Operating Voltage = 3.3V
• Digital I/O pins = 14
• PWM Pins = 11

• Analog Pins = 8
• External Interrupts = All digital pins
• Size = 18x45 mm
• UART = 1
• SPI = 1
• I2C = 1
• Weight = 5gr.

Programming

Arduino.cc has introduced an official software Arduino IDE to program all boards of the Arduino Family. The C and C++ languages are used in this software to program the Arduino boards. The Nano 33 incorporates a USB port through which you can connect the board with the computer using a USB cable. You can send several instructions to the board and control and program the board as you like better. Plus, the Arduino board includes a Bootloader that is mainly used to burn the program inside the controller, setting you free from buying the separate burner to burn the Arduino program.

Related Boards

You might have witnessed a range of Arduino boards at Arduino.cc. Some boards share similar functionalities. If you want to expand your experience you can play with other Arduino boards that come with similar IoT functionalities including: Arduino MKR WiFi 1000 – it is only employed for Wi-Fi applications as it comes with a different chipset than Arduino Nano 33 IoT. Arduino Uno Wifi Rev 2 – it is an educational version of the MKR WiFi 1010, incorporated with an embedded accelerometer and USB-B connector. Arduino MKR Wifi 1010 – It is an advanced version of Nano 33 that features a battery charger but lacks an accelerometer.

Arduino Nano 33 IoT Appications

This board is widely used in IoT applications. You can connect this board with an existing WiFi system and control physical things like vehicles, electric motors, medical devices, street lights… over the internet. That’s all for today. I hope you’ve enjoyed reading this article. If you have any questions, you can approach me in the section below. I’d love to help you the best way I can. Feel free to share your valuable suggestions and feedback around the content we share, so we keep producing quality content based on your needs and requirements. Thank you for reading the article.

NAND as Universal Gate in Proteus

Hello Learners! Welcome to The Engineering Projects. In the previous tutorial, we discussed the first universal gate i.e. NOR Gate and simulated it in Proteus. Today, we are going to focus on the second universal gate i.e. NAND Gate. We will also derive basic logic gates from the NAND gate, to prove its universality.

Today, we'll seek the answers to the following questions:

1. What is a NAND Gate?
2. What is a Universal Gate?
3. NAND as a Universal Gate.
4. NAND Gate as Universal Gate in Proteus ISIS.

Let's get started:

What is a NAND Gate?

• A NAND Gate is designed by inverting the output of AND Gate and thus it gives a LOW output when all of its inputs are HIGH, otherwise, it's HGIH.
• In order to design a NAND gate, simply place a NOT gate in front of the AND gate.
• A and B are two inputs of the NAND Gate, Output Y is denoted by a dot between the inputs along with a combined compliment or a bar on the whole statement.

Y= (A.B)'

• The graphical symbol of the NAND Gate is the same as that of the AND gate, except there's a small bubble at the start of the output to represent NOT. The graphical representation of the NAND gate is shown in the below figure:
  

Truth Table and Timing Diagram of NAND Gate

• Here's the Truth Table of the NAND Gate(Inverse of AND Gate):

A	B	(A.B)’
0	0	1
0	1	0
1	0	0
1	1	0

• The timing diagram of the NAND gate is shown below:
  

What is a Universal Gate?

In Logic Circuits, we often use a term called "Universal gates". this can be defined as:

"The category of Logic Gates, through which we can derive all the Basic Gates are called universal Gates."

We have two Universal Gates, NAND Gate and NOR Gate. These have importance in the world of Digital Logic Designs because of their simplicity and usefulness.

NAND as a Universal Gate

As discussed before, NAND Gate is a Universal Gate because we can design any logic gate with a NAND Gate. Let's design the following logic gates with a NAND Gate:

1. OR Gate
2. AND Gate
3. NOT Gate

Components Required:

1. NAND Gate
2. Logic Toggle
3. Logic Probe
4. Connecting Wires

Take the discussed elements from the pick library One after the other through "P" button. Follow the instructions to make all the Gates one by one.

Basic Gates through NAND Gate

OR Gate

While Designing the OR Gate through NOR Gate, we must have the knowledge about one rule of Digital Logic Design that says:

"The Compliment of the ANDed input is equal to the ORed inputs."

Mathematically,

(A'B')'=A+B

• Take an NAND gate from the library and fix it at the working area.
• Repeat the step two times.
• Connect the output of two NAND Gates with the input of third one.
• Connect the  inputs of other two remaining Gate with each other through a wire to set them as one input.
• Connect logic Toggles as the input with two NAND Gates.
• Join Logic Probe to visualize the output.

The circuit looks like this:

• Pop the play button.

Change the value of inputs one by one and record the output in the form of table.AND Gate

We'll Design AND Gate through NAND Gate on the basis of the following rule of logic Design:

"The Compliment of ANDed inputs is equal to the ANDed inputs."

(A.B)'=A.B

• Get two NAND Gates from Pick Library.
• Set them at the working area.
• Join then inputs of 2nd Gate with each other.
• Set Logic toggles at the input of the 1st one.
• Join Logic Probe with the output of 2nd one.
• Connect the output of the 1st Gate with the inputs of the other.

• Change the inputs through Logic Gates.
• Record the truth table according to the output.

NOT Gate

The formation of NOT Gate through NAND Gate is based upon the rule:

"The Compliment ANDed input with itself is equal to the complement of input."

(A.A)'=A'

• Take the NAND Gate.
• Fix it at working area.
• Connect its both inputs with each other.
• Connect Logic Toggle and Logic Probe.

• Change the inputs.

The resultant Truth Table is: NOTE: You can Gain the same output by following the rule (A.1)'=A'

Advantages of NAND Gate

1. NAND Gate is a universal gate therefore it can make the circuit less complex.
2. We can use them for the functionality of more than one Gate.
3. It stores more storage capacity as compared to its size.
4. It is Cost effective per byte.

Real life Applications of NAND Gate

1. Freezer warning buzzers.
2. Burglar Alarms.

Disadvantages of NAND Gate

1. It is Difficult to design than other Gates.
2. It has propagation delay.
3. The high Gate count is also a disadvantage.

Consequently, we recognized the Core detail of NAND gate, we learnt what are the universal gate and how can we make different gates with NAND gate using Proteus simulation. moreover, we got some of the advantages, disadvantage and   some real life applications of NAND Gate.

NOR as Universal Gate in Proteus ISIS

Hi Mentees! I hope you all are having a Productive Day. In our previous lecture, we discussed the DLD Basic Logic Gates and simulated them in Proteus. Today, we are going to use these standard logic gates and will design another logic gate named NOR Gate and will also simulate it in Proteus.

In this tutorial, we'll learn the following concepts:

1. What is a NOR Gate?
2. Why NOR is called Universal Gate?
3. How to derive other Gates through NOR Gate?
4. Advantages of NOR Gate.

Let's begin the exploration:

What is a NOR Gate?

• "NOR gate is designed by inverting the output of an OR Gate, so it gives a HIGH output, only when all the inputs are LOW."
• In simple words, a NOR Gate has an OR Gate followed by the NOT Gate, as shown in the below figure:

• The Graphical Symbol of a NOR Gate is the same as that of the OR gate but we place a small bubble at the start of the output, which represents the NOT gate, shown in the above figure.
• Assume that A and B are the inputs of a NOR Gate, Output Y is denoted by a plus sign between inputs with a collective bar or complement sign on the whole statement as:

Y = (A + B)'

Truth Table and Timing diagram of NOR Gate

A Truth Table is a tabular representation of a logic gate having all the possible scenarios. The Truth table of the NOR Gate for 2 inputs is as follows:

A	B	(A+B)’
0	0	1
0	1	0
1	0	0
1	1	0

• The timing diagram of the NOR Gate is as follows:

What is a Universal Gate?

• A logic gate is called Universal Gate, if we could design all the other logic gates using it.
• There are two Universal Gates available, named:
• NOR Gate.
• NAND Gate. (we will cover in the next chapter)
  

We have studied basic DLD logic gates i.e. AND, OR and NOT in our previous lecture. We can design all these gates with the Universal Gate. Let's have a look:

NOR as Universal Gate in Proteus ISIS

In this section, we are going to design the 3 basic logic gates(AND, OR and NOT) using NOR gate. While Designing the circuits, we need the following components:

Material Required

1. NOR Gate
2. Logic Toggle
3. LED
4. Ground Terminal
5. Connecting Wires

NOT Gate

• In order to design a NOT Gate with NOR Gate, we simply need to combine the inputs.
• Mathematically,

(A.A)'=A'

•  The Proteus simulation of NOR gate acting as a NOT gate, is shown in the below figure:

• I have attached an LED at the output to analyze the working.
• Hence, we found the Truth Table as:

OR Gate

During the formation of OR Gate through NOR Gate, we have to keep in mind the following statement:

"The output of NORed inputs is also the ORed input."

We denote this Statement as:

(A.B)'=A+B

• Take two NOR Gates.
• Connect the second NOR Gate's inputs with each other.
• Join the output of first one with the output of the other.
• Join grounded LED and Logic Probes for input and output respectively.
• Pop the play button.

Change the Values of Logic toggles according to the truth table. Notice that in the formation of current Gate, we implemented the NOT Gate, derived from the NOR Gate that we made before this.

AND Gate

The core statement of the formation of AND Gate through NOR is given next:

"The NORed output of Complements of the input is AND Gate."

Mathematically,

(A'+B')'=AB

• Get the two NOR Gates from Pick Library.
• Fix them vertically at the working sheet.
• Connect the input of each of them with themselves.
• Join Logic Toggle with each of it.
• Take another NOR Gate from the pick Library.
• Connect the output of 1st two with the input of the third.
• Get the Grounded LED and fix it at the remaining output.

• Press the Play sign of the Proteus ISIS.
• Design the Truth Table by applying the required inputs.

[TEPImg9]

Advantages

1. It occupies little space.
2. It is less expensive.
3. we can use it in the place of four Gates.
4. It is less complex.

Truss, Today we learnt about the core concepts about the NOR Gate. we saw why we call it as universal Gate and also we saw the Practical experiments to prove our discussion.

XOR Gate with Truth Table in Proteus

Hey pals, we hope you are doing well. In our previous lecture, we discussed the basic DLD Basic Logic Gates and simulated in Proteus. Today, we are going to discuss another logic gate called Exclusive OR Gate(XOR Gate). We will also design the XOR Gate in Proteus using the basic logic gates(i.e. AND, OR and NOT), discussed in the previous lecture.

In today's tutorial, we are going to focus on:

1. What are Exclusive OR Gates
2. Experimental Proof in Proteus ISIS.
3. How Truth Table of Exclusive OR Gate is designed.
4. How is its Timing Diagram?
5. Circuit of Exclusive OR Gate in Proteus Simulation
6. Applications of Exclusive OR Gates

Exclusive OR Gate(XOR Gate)

• In the Exclusive OR Gate(XOR Gate), the output will be HIGH(1), only if the odd no. of inputs is HIGH(1) and at least one of the inputs is LOW. (it's a bit complex, will understand it in the next section)
• The XOR Gate is denoted by a plus sign with a circle around it between the inputs i.e. $A\oplus B$.
• XOR gate is designed by combining standard logic gates(i.e. AND, OR and NOT), but because of its extensive use in arithmetic operations and error detection, it's considered a standard logic gate.
• The Truth Table of XOR Gate is given below:

A	B
0	0	0
0	1	1
1	0	1
1	1	0

• The XOR Gate symbol along with its representation and truth table is shown in the below figure:

Working Principle of XOR Gate

Its definition has two conditions in it:

1. Odd no. of Inputs should be HIGH
2. At least one of the inputs should be LOW

We have seen in the 2-Input XOR truth table, the output is HIGH in the 2nd and 3rd Rows, because these rows are fulfills both conditions i.e., we have an odd no of HIGH inputs(1 input is HIGH) and at least 1 LOW input(1 Input is LOW). While, in the 1st and 4th rows, both conditions are unfulfilled, thus getting LOW at the output.

Now, let's have a look at the truth table of the 3-input XOR Gate:

Image

Now it will get more clear, as you can see in the 4th row, we have 1 HIGH Input and 2 LOW Inputs, thus both conditions are fulfilled and we are getting HIGH at the OUTPUT. But in the 7th row, 2 Inputs are HIGH and 1 is LOW, although the 2nd condition is fulfilled i.e. we have at least 1 LOW input but the first condition is unfulfilled i.e. we have even no of HIGH Inputs. That's why we are getting LOW at the output. I hope now it gets clear.

Mathematical Representation of XOR

Now let's understand the output of the XOR gate mathematically. XOR gate is used in arithmetic calculations because it adds the inputs and gets the carry.

Here's the mathematical calculation of XOR truth table:

 0+0=0

0+1=1

1+0=1

1+1=0 (Carry)

Here's the Proteus demonstration of the XOR truth table:

Design XOR Gate with Standard Logic Gates

Now, we are going to design an XOR gate using the basic logic gates i.e. AND, OR and NOT. The formula for XOR Gate is as follows:

Y = A.(B)' + (A)'.B

As you can see in the above equation, we can get an XOR output(Y) by applying 3 logic gates i.e. AND, OR and NOT, on the inputs(A and B).

Let's verify this equation by putting values from the XOR truth table:

For 1st Row:

=0.(0)'+(0)'.0

=0.1+1.0

=0+0

=0

For 2nd Row:

Now, A=0, B=1:

=0.(1)'+(0)'.1

=0.0+1.1

=0+1

=1

For 3rd Row:

Consider A=1, B=0:

=1.(0)'+(1)'.0

=0.1+0.0

=1+0

=1

For 4th Row:

At last, check the expression when A=1, B=1:

=1.(1)'+(1)'.1

=1.0+0.1

=0+0

=0

So, now let's design this equation for the XOR Gate in the Proteus software. Let's get started:

Proteus Simulation of XOR Gate

As we have seen in the previous section, we need to implement this equation in the Proteus software:

Y = A.(B)' + (A)'.B

So, open your Proteus software and get these components from the Proteus library:

Material Required:

1. AND Gate
2. OR Gate
3. NOT Gate
4. Logic Toggle
5. LED

Circuit Diagram of XOR Gate:

Here's the circuit diagram of the XOR Gate in Proteus using the standard logic gates i.e. AND, OR and NOT:

• As you can see in the above figure, the upper AND gate is implementing the first part of the equation i.e. A.(B)' and the second AND gate is implementing the second part i.e. (A)'.B
• NOT Gate in inversing the inputs, placed at the inputs of AND Gates.
• Finally, we placed an OR gate to add the outputs from both AND gates so that we could complete the equation i.e. A.(B)' + (A)'.B 
• Finally, we placed an LED at the output.

Applications of XOR Gate

XOR Gate is used in many circuits as:

1. We use XOR Gate in Half Adder.
2. It is used in the circuit of Controlled inverters.
3. XOR is also used in comparators.
4. Subtractor is the application of XOR Gate.
5. The parity checker is made through XOR Gate.
6. XOR is used in the Arithmetic Logic Circuits.
7. Circuit of Binary to Grey and vice versa.

Today, we discussed the Exclusive OR Gate in detail. We have also designed the simulation of XOR Gate in PRoteus software with the help of basic logic gates i.e. AND, OR and NOT gates. That's all for today. Take care!!!

Introduction to ATmega4809

Hi Guys! I welcome you on board. Happy to see you around. In this post today, I’ll walk you through the Introduction to ATmega4809. The ATmega4809 is a type of microcontroller that belongs to the megaAVR® 0-series. It features an AVR® processor with a clock speed running at up to 20 MHz. It comes with a Flash memory size up to 48 KB, 256 bytes of EEPROM, and 6 KB of SRAM. It is available in 28-, 32-, 40-, or 48-pin packages. I suggest you buckle up as I’ll detail the complete Introduction to ATmega4809 covering datasheet, pinout, features, power ratings, and applications. Let’s get started.

Introduction to ATmega4809

• The ATmega4809 microcontroller belongs to the megaAVR® 0-series that contains an AVR processor.
• The series carries low power features with the latest core independent peripherals.
• The ATmega4809 utilizes Microchip's latest technologies with an efficient and low-power architecture including SleepWalking, Event System, and accurate analog features.

• This device carries Single-pin Unified Program Debug Interface (UPDI) that is a bi-directional single wire interface and needs a programmer that supports UPDI.

• The clock speed is 20MHz which is required for the synchronization of all internal functions.
• The microcontroller program is stored in the flash memory which is around 48KB. While EEPROM and SRAM are 256bytes and 6KB respectively. Write/Erase endurance for flash memory is 10,000 cycles and for EEPROM is 100,000 cycles.
• SRAM memory is used to produce and manipulate variables when this runs. The EEPROM memory is a non-volatile memory that stays stored in the board even when board power is removed.
• There are 4 UART communication protocols and one SPI and one I2C communication protocol are available on the microcontroller.
• The UART is a serial communication protocol that carries two pins Rx and Tx. The Rx is a receiving pin that is used to receive the serial data while Tx is a transmission pin used to transfer serial data.
• I2C is a two-wire communication protocol that carries two pins SDL and SCL. The SDL is a serial data line that carries the data while SCL is a serial clock line that is used for the synchronization of all data transfer over an I2C bus.
• SPI stands for a serial peripheral interface that is mainly used to develop the communication between the controller and other sensors and shift registers. Two pins: MISO (Master Input Slave Output) and MOSI (Master Output Slave Input) are incorporated for SPI communication. These pins are installed to receive or send data by the controller.
• This device comes with three sleep modes: Idle, standby, and power down. The sleep mode is the mode when nothing happens. Simply put, during sleep mode device remains in rest mode. As nothing taking place during the sleep mode, at that point the device consumes the lowest power and the crystal oscillator is turned off.

• The device also offers a power-on-reset (POR) and brown-out-detection (BOD). The power-on-reset just resets the device when the signal is provided to the device.
• The brown-out-detection is a protection circuit that monitors when the supply voltage goes below down a certain level and consequently puts the device into a reset state which leads to proper startup when power is applied back again.
• The controller also contains 16-channel 10-bit ADC and an analog comparator.
• Other features include configurable custom logic, 5x16 bit timer, cyclical redundancy check, watchdog timer, and hardware multiplier.

ATmega4809 Datasheet

Before you incorporate this device into your electrical project, it’s wise to scan through the datasheet of the component that features the main characteristics of the device. Click the link below and download the datasheet of ATmega4809.

Available Packages

ATmega4809 comes in different pin mappings mainly dependent on the current hardware.

48 Pin Package

It is the standard pin package that comes with 9 PWM pins and a flash memory of 48KB. Know that this 48-pin package is only available on ATmega4809 and ATmega3209. This package comes with 4 UART communication protocols and one SPI protocol.

40 Pin Package

This pinout is almost identical to the 48-pin package with lesser pins and it comes with 8 PWM pins. This pinout is reserved for ATmega4809 only. Like a 48-pin package, this pinout carries 4 UART and one SPI communication protocol.

32-Pin Package

This pinout is a robust and clean design that comes with 8 PWM pins. Know that this pinout is not compatible with Arduino shields.

28-Pin Package  

This is the 28-pin package that comes with 8 PWM pins and a clock frequency of around 20MHz. Again, this pinout is also not compatible with Arduino shields. The 28-pin package comes with 3 UART and one SPI communication protocol.

Uno WiFi

The Arduino Uno WiFi Rev2 hardware incorporates this pinout. It comes with 6 PWM pins. Any code written for Arduino UNO WiFi Rev 2 is equally compatible with this pinout. It is important to note that Uno WiFi pinout is only reserved for ATmega3209/4809.

Nano Every

The Arduino Nano Every incorporates this pinout. The code written for Arduino Nano Every can run for this pinout without any modifications. You’ll get this pinout when you select ATmega4809 from the Arduino IDE software.

ATmega4809 Pinout

The following figure shows the pinout diagram of ATmega4809 that comes in a 48-pin package.

ATmega4809 Features

• No. of pins = 48
• Flash memory = 48KB
• SRAM = 6KB
• EEPROM = 256 bytes
• Also includes Hardware multiplier
• Three sleep modes: Idle, Standby, Power Down

• Event System for core independent and predictable inter-peripheral signaling
• Comes with Power-On Reset (POR) and Brown-Out Detection (BOD)
• Contains Single pin programming and debugging interface (UPDI)
• Carries 16 Channel 10-bit ADC with Voltage Reference
• Features Analog Comparator (AC) and Watchdog Timer
• Configurable Custom Logic (CCL) with up to four programmable Look-up Tables (LUT)
• Contains 5x 16-bit Timer (TCA / TCB) and Cyclical Redundancy Check (CRC/SCAN)
• SPI / I2C / USART
• Five selectable internal voltage references: 0.55V, 1.1V, 1.5V, 2.5V, and 4.3V

ATmega4809 Applications

• Employed in high responsive command and control applications.
• Used in embedded systems and real-time control systems.
• Used in industrial automation and home automation.

That’s all for today. I hope you find this article helpful. If you have any questions, you can ask me in the section below. I’d love to help you the best way I can. You are most welcome to share your valuable suggestions and feedback around the content we share so we keep producing quality content based on your exact needs and requirements. Thank you for reading the article.

XNOR Gate with Truth Table in Proteus ISIS

Hello Mentees!, I hope you have a productive day. Welcome to The Engineering Projects. In the previous lecture, we discussed the XOR Logic Gate and designed its circuit using basic logic gates i.e. AND, OR and NOT. Today, I am going to explain another Logic Gate named XNOR Gate in detail.

We are going to discuss these concepts in today's lecture:

1. What are Exclusive NOR Gates
2. Experimental Proof in Proteus ISIS.
3. How Truth Table of Exclusive NOR Gate is designed.
4. How is its Timing Diagram?
5. Circuit of Exclusive NOR Gate in Proteus Simulation
6. Applications of Exclusive NOR Gates

XNOR Gate

• The exclusive NOR Gate(also called XNOR Gate) simply inverts the output of the XOR Gate(we discussed in the last lecture).
• So, if we simply place a NOT Gate in front of the XOR Gate, we will get the XNOR Gate.
• The XNOR Gate is denoted by a plus sign with a circle around it between the inputs and a collective Complement or a Bar on the Expression.
• The symbolic representation of XNOR along with symbol and expression is shown in the below figure:

• The Truth Table of XNOR Gate is given next:

A	B	Y
0	0	1
0	1	0
1	0	0
1	1	1

Mathematical Expression of XNOR Gate

The XNOR Gate with 2-inputs(A and B) and 1 Output(Z) is represented by the following mathematical expression:

Z = (A)'.(B)' + A.B

So, we will need AND, OR and NOT logical gates to implement XNOR Gate. Let's first verify this equation by applying the truth table.

For 1st Row:

=(0)'.(0)'+0.0

=1.1+0.0

=1+0

=1

For 2nd Row:

Now, A=0, B=1

=(0)'.(1)'+0.1

=1.0+0.1

=0+0

=0

For 3rd Row:

Consider A=1, B=0:

=(1)'.(0)'+1.0

=0.1+1.0

=0+0

=0

For 4th Row:

Lastly, A=1, B=1:

=(1)'.(1)'+1.1

=0.0+1.1

=0+1

=1

Hence in accordance with the above discussion, let's design the circuit of the XNOR Gate in the Proteus software:

Proteus Simulation OF XNOR Gate

Now let's design the Proteus Simulation of the XNOR gate. We simply need to implement the mathematical expression of XNOR Gate, discussed in the last section.

Material Required:

1. AND Gate
2. OR Gate
3. NOT Gate
4. Logic Toggle
5. LED

Circuit Diagram of XNOR Gate:

First of all, we will design the below circuit in Proteus:

Image

As you can see in the above figure, the first AND Gate is getting the inverted inputs and the second AND Gate is provided with simple inputs. Finally, the output of both AND gates is passed through the OR Gate and we got our XNOR output. I have placed an LED at the output to visualize it.

Applications of XNOR Gate

XOR Gate is used in many circuits as:

1. We use XOR Gate in digital circuits.
2. It is used in error-detecting Circuits.
3. XOR is also used in Arithmetic Circuits.
4. Encryption Circuits is the application of XNOR Gate.
5. The combinational circuit is made through XNOR Gate.
6. XNOR is used in sequential Circuits.
7. Circuit of Binary to Grey and vice versa.

Today we saw discussed the Exclusive NOR Gate(XNOR Gate) in detail. We have also designed its simulation using AND, OR and NOT logic gates. Till the next tutorial, take care!!!

4-Bit Full Adder using Logic Gates in Proteus

Hi Learners! I hope you are having a productive Day. Welcome from the Team of The Engineering Projects. The digital logic circuit that we are learning today is 4-Bit Full Adder. In our previous tutorial, we designed 2-Bit Full Adder using Logic Gates in Proteus software. Today, we are going to design & simulate 4-Bit Full Adder using Logic Gates in Proteus.

We will discuss the following topics in today's lecture:

1. What is Adder?
2. What is Full Adder?
   
3. Working Principle of 4-bit Full Adder.
   
4. Simulation of four-bit full Adder in Proteus ISIS.

What is Adder?

Let's recall the Adder Definition from our previous lectures:

• Adders are Digital Logical Circuits, specially designed to add two or more binary numbers or bits.

In the world of electronics, adders are used to add bits. The computer system depends upon the flow of bits and the computation of bits. Adders take the input in the form of bits and perform the addition, according to the type of Adder used. Basically, we divide the adders into two types:

1. Half Adder.
2. Full Adder.

We have discussed both Half Adder & Full Adder in detail in our previous lectures. Yet we have to recall the full adder's introduction:

What is Full Adder?

"Full Adders are the Digital Logic Circuits used to add three input bits and generate two outputs i.e. the Sum and the resultant Carry."

We further classify the Full Adder into two main types:

1. 2-bit Full Adder.
2. 4-bit Full Adder.

4-bit Full Adder

As the name implies, a four-bit full adder is used to add four sets of input bits. The definition of a 4-bit Full adder is as follows:

• "A 4-bit Full Adder is designed to generate a 4-bit Sum and is designed by combining four 2-bit Full Adders and as a result shows the Four bits output along with the Carry Bit."

The Circuit of the Four-bit Full Adder consists of the XOR Gate, AND Gate and OR Gate. Let's have a quick recap of these Gates.

XOR Gate

A XOR Gate, is a two input Logical Circuit that give the output HIGH only when the inputs have the values alternating of each other. Or else, it is LOW.

AND Gate

AND Gate is the a logical Circuit that gives the Output HIGH only when its both inputs are HIGH, otherwise the output is LOW.

OR Gate

The OR Gate is a logical Circuit with the working such that when on of the Input is HIGH, the value of the Output is also HIGH.

Working Principle of 4-bit Full Adder

The Four Bit Full Adder works in an interesting manner. The XOR Gates are responsible for the addition of input bits. In order to get the full addition circuit we attach two AND gates with the circuit in such a way that the result of addition connects the OR Gate and we get the carry.

In the designing of circuit, we simply make a small circuit of AND Gate and XOR Gate. Then we design a Circuit of two bits Full Adder. The cynosure of the circuit is, we'll copy the block and arrange four blocks in a way that the output carry of the block becomes the input carry of the next. This cycle will continue and at the  fourth block we get the resultant carry of whole calculation. we can input only one carry of our will at the Block A.

Practical performance of 4-Bit Full Adder

If you wish to stimulate the Four bits full adder in Proteus then follow the simple steps given below. We'll make our circuit according to the Functional Diagram given before.

• Begin Your Proteus Software.
• Get the required material.

Required Devices

1. XOR Gate
2. AND Gate
3. OR Gate
4. Logic Toggle
5. LED
6. Ground Terminal

• Push the "P" button presented at left area of the screen.
• Select first four elements from the Library by mere writing there names one after the other.
• Get  a XOR Gate and one AND Gate.
• Connect the Logic Toggles with each input of XOR Gate.
• Connect an LED with the end of the XOR Gate.
• Go to Terminal Mode and get the ground terminal to attach the Ground Terminal with LED.
• Drag and drop two XOR Gates, two AND Gates and one OR Gate and arrange them at the working area one after the other according to the image given below:
• Attach Logic Toggle with each input of switch 1.
• Get the LED and join it with the output of switch 3.
• Click the left button of mouse> go to Terminals> Ground Terminal.
• Place the ground Terminal just below the LED.
• Join all the components according to the images given below;

 

• Select the whole block left click>drag and drop the required area. It will create a doted square around the circuit.
• Right Click> copy block.
• Right click the mouse and paste the block with the same procedure.

• Repeat the Pasting Process one time more and paste the circuit copy just one below the other.
• Connect the each output carry switch with the input of the next.
• Grab the Logic Toggle from the Pick Library and join it with the input carry wire of the first block.

• Change the input values by the mean of Logic Toggles and check the working.

Working Example of 4-bit Full Adder in Proteus

You can test the circuit with an example. Question: We have two numbers 1100 and 1010. Find the resultant through four bits Full Adder. Answer: Let A=1100 B=1010

Logic about For bit Full Adder

The 1st Logic Toggle of each XOR 1 switch is called A bit. The 2nd Logic Toggle of each XOR 1 represents the B bit. Turning of LED means the HIGH (1) and vise versa. We start to input from down to up and the output as well. Hence start the observation from block D to A.  For the Question, the circuit should be set as: Hence we got the answer that is:

A	1	1	0	0
B	1	0	1	0
Result	(1 carry)0	1	1	0

Consequently, we made a Four bit Full Adder. Stay tuned for other Logical Circuits.

2-Bit Full Adder using Logic Gates in Proteus

Hello Learners! I hope you are doing great. Welcome to The Engineering Projects. In our previous lecture, we discussed How to design Half Adder with Universal Gates. In today's tutorial, we are going to design Full Adder with Logical Gates.

In today's tutorial, we will learn the complete information about:

1. What is Adder?
2. What is Full Adder?
3. How is the Truth Table of Full Adder?
4. How can we design Full Adder in Proteus ISIS?
5. What are the uses of Full Adder?

What is Adder?

Recalling from our previous lectures:

• The Adders are simple Logical Circuits that take the bits in as the input, sum the bits together and generate the sum and the carry at the output.
• Adders are present in computer architecture, mainly to control the addressing of the Arithmetic Logic Unit(ALU).

We classify the Adders into two types:

1. Half Adder.
2. Full Adder.

We have discussed half Adder in detail in our previous two lectures. Today we'll stress the Full Adder:

What is Full Adder?

There are two types of Full Adders:

• 2-bit Full Adder.
• 4-Bit Full Adder. (We will discuss in the next lecture)
  

We define the Full Adder as:

•  A Full Adders is a simple Logical Circuit, that takes 3 inputs(1-bit each) and generates two outputs i.e. the Sum(1-bit) and the Carry(1-Bit).
• A Full Adder takes 2 inputs A and B, while the third input is actually the Carry Input.

• We have seen in the Half Adder that we took 2 inputs and calculated the Sum and the Carry but we have no way of adding that Carry back into the Sum.
• This problem is solved by the Full Adder, which takes the Carry and adds it in the Sum to get a final Sum.
• That's why, we can use multiple Full Adders in series to add any amount of Bits.
• For example, we can serially attach 8 Full Adders to add 8 Bits of data(1-byte).

The Full Adder plays an important role in computer hardware calculations i.e. ALU control, register addressing etc. Here's a simple 2-Bit Full Adder Circuit using Logic Gates:

Truth Table of 2-bit Full Adder

As discussed above, there are three inputs and two outputs present in Full Adder. Therefore, the Truth Table of Full Adder will have 5 columns in total:

The input combinations of the Truth Tables are followed through the formula:

Numbers of Combinations= 2^n

where n is the number of inputs. In our case,

n=3

hence,

Numbers of Combinations=8

We start the truth table from zero bit. The right most input has the alternative inputs after each combination. The middle contains the alternative bits after two combinations. By the same token the left most changes the input bit after four combinations.

The Truth Table of Full Adder looks like this:

A	B	Cin	Sum	C0
0	0	0	0	0
0	0	1	1	0
0	1	0	1	0
0	1	1	0	1
1	0	0	1	0
1	0	1	0	1
1	1	0	0	1
1	1	1	1	1
Carry+A+B			Sum	Carry out

Simulation of Full Adder in Proteus ISIS

To design a Full Adder in Proteus, get these components from the library:

Components Required

1. XOR Gate
2. AND Gate
3. OR Gate
4. Logic Toggle
5. LED
6. Ground Terminal

• Get the first five components from the Pick Library through the "P" button.
• As shown in the below figure, I have placed the 5 Logic Gates in our Proteus workspace.
• We have 2 XOR Gates at the top, after that we have 2 AND Gates and finally an OR Gate at the end.
• The circuit should look like this:

• Now, connect two Logic Toggles with the inputs of Logic Gate 1.
• Connect one Logic Toggle with the 2nd input of Logic Gate 3.
• Attach the LED with the Gate 3 output and ground the LED with Ground Terminal present in "Terminal Mode" on the leftmost bar of the screen.
• Repeat the above step for Logic Gate 5.
• Connect all the Logic Gates according to the diagram given next:

• Change the Input bits and record your own truth table.
• To understand the working better, we'll design a Truth Table that describes the output of each Logic Gate.

Input			Output
A	B	Cin	Gate1	Gate2	Gate4	Gate3(Sum)	Gate5 C0
0	0	0	0	0	0	0	0
0	0	1	1	0	0	1	0
0	1	0	1	0	0	1	0
0	1	1	0	1	0	0	1
1	0	0	0	0	0	1	0
1	0	1	1	0	1	0	1
1	1	0	1	0	1	0	1
1	1	1	0	1	0	1	1
Carry+A+B						Sum	Carry out

Truss, we got a Full Adder circuit through which we can make the calculations.

Uses of Full Adder

1. Full adders are paramount for the on-chip Libraries.
2. They are used in computers for table indices.
3. They are used by the processor to add the addresses.
4. Full adders are used in Arithmetic Logic Unit.
5. Full Adders are used in the Computer for the series calculations. For this purpose, they may be connected in the way given next in the image. Observe it from bottom to top.[TEPImg6]
6. It can be designed so, that we can input eight bits together that collectively work as a byte.

So, that was all for today. We discussed What are Adders? What are Full Adders? Truth Table of Full Adder and how can we design Full adder in the Proteus software. I hope this article was useful. In our next lecture, we will discuss 4-Bit Full Adders in detail. Thanks for reading.