The Engineering Projects

The consolidation of JLCPCB & EasyEDA

The core reason for Co-branding is to better serve the coming future of electronic products and the tech world. JLCPCB is known as a multilayer PCBs integrated circuits manufacturer, which owns 5 independent factories and an order-friendly global PCB company. EasyEDA is known as the world's first web-based EDA tool and cloud-based EDAtool. EasyEDA’s tech stability and maturity and JLCPCB’s great production scale are the strongest assets for the consolidation. The deep link of two integrates technical resources, computing resources, and operating resources for future challenges of mobile phone hotspots, free WIFI, and 5G, etc. The EasyEDA tech sector’s like-mindedness is a software tool to serve engineers, not driven by software tools. So Cloud-based features allow electronic engineers to browse the PCB design everywhere, during the nap of a business trip, when the nap of a vacation journey, when the way back home, anywhere, anytime to access your files easily. JLCPCB constantly pursues growth and progress. In the current technology world, people need to think big, then make big. Creativity and practice are what JLCPCB keeps doing. The supply of low-cost and high-quality PCBs allows JLCPCB to gain 800000+customers worldwide, so they assembled to face challenges together. EDA used to be the most profitable of the IC industry, and the practitioners are also the most knowledgeable and intelligent group. However,  with the low threshold for entrepreneurship, more and more people are joining the competition and finally, it becomes seriously competitive, but this urges EDA practitioners' skills to be refined. After decades of competition and annexation, a few EDA companies have now become dominant. The combination of EasyEDA and JLCPCB conforms to the trend, brings healthy competition to the industry, and provides stable financial and human resources for R&D. However, in-depth technology R&D can't be achieved via any quickness. Therefore, JLCPCB & EasyEDA has a consensus: they have to stably develop technology,  long and profoundly when some stakeholders pursue rapid tech development. This also makes EasyEDA and JLCPCB choose to be more closely integrated.

Division & Cooperation in the Technological World

The upgraded network technology foundation, the upgraded demands. Global division and collaboration is already the trend of product completion, which are carried out on the basis of internet-based products. internet-based products refer to tangible products or intangible services that use the Internet as a tool to meet customer’s needs and help to achieve commercial value. We can see Internet-based product logic from the two. Free and easy to use is the value of EasyEDA. JLCPCB's winning points are low price and convenience. Their multilayer PCBs manufacturing service accepts 1-6 layer boards which only cost $2(starting price). When customers need a powerful PCB layout and simulation capability with massive libraries of schematic components in order to push forward PCB mass production; When customers need comprehensive system solutions, which provides manufacturing processes Technology,  hi-tech intellectual property licenses, emerging technology knowledge, etc they are more appreciated. The consolidation of JLCPCB and EasyEDA become valuable. The final electronic products come from the global labor division, when the American engineer has finished his Gerber design on EasyEDA, one clicks to upload his file on the JLCPCB page, then waits for the local DHL staff to deliver the PCB to his door. Task division of design, production, and delivery links all. When the production link between countries no longer occurs after the final production but occurs at every stage of product research and development, manufacturing, marketing, and operation management, the whole production networks have shared the good result of high-tech industries, like the links between clients and JLCPCB & EasyEDA. Back to the PCB industry, there are three major characteristics of PCB and EDA industries, including industrial innovation, high demand for professionals, and prosperous M&A activities. M & A activity is the key to expanding market share and deepening the level of technology. Take Synopsys as an example. It was established in 1986. According to industry statistics, since the late 1990s, it has successively acquired more than 40 small EDA companies and silicon intellectual property companies. Now of course M&A activities get more common for this industry.1+1 may be greater than 2, and the same is true for customer groups and integrated technical resources. Now JLCPCB has 800,000 + customers, with EasyEDA tens of thousands of users every day, the combination of the two can bring convenience to clients, and can also make the development of the two profitable, tap non-overlapping customers, and experience new of each other's services. This is a manifestation of the progress of software and hardware cooperation and a symbol of the division and cooperation of technical products.

Cloud-based EDA, unlimited effort

EasyEDA was established in June 2010, 60 years after the first EDA. It is based on the web, with schematic capture, spice circuit simulation, and PCB layout tool for electronics engineers. The developers of EasyEDA, Dillon He, set out to create a PCB design software tool that provides comprehensive data and collaboration tools to help engineers and designers move from idea to product more easily and quickly, so EasyEDA was born. EDA is a process of transforming hardware principles into real objects,  it is more like a carrier to show the mindset. It is divided into two major branches: microelectronics and hardware boards. EasyEDA serves hardboard circuits, which are used for electronic watches, mobile phones, switchboards in the computer room, they all contain hardware boards. It insisted on cloud-based tools from the start and never changed. The concept of EasyEDA cannot be accepted by some people, who don’t trust their designs on the alien servers, or so-kind web-based services. The founder, Mr. He said: “ Perhaps EasyEDA needs to wait, wait for free WIFI widespread, wait for the speedy Internet, wait for everyone's copyright awareness, wait for everyone to accept the new model, and wait for the change of user habits.”  For the distrust of cloud file storage security, EasyEDA has promised if the tool is shut down they would open-source their code and provide adequate time to download files. “Therefore we can only serve those who have the same value.” He also pointed out. Engineers are always so cool! Mr. He sometimes is tender. “A loyal EasyEDA user expressed that he is a loyal user of cloud products. He will give priority to products that can be cloud-based. He firmly believes that the comprehensive advantages of cloud products are greater than the desktop stand-alone version. He trusts JLC’s professional team to protect my data. However, he needs a sense of security, and he needs to know that one day he will be able to open his design locally. Maybe this day will never come for me, but you'd better provide this function, although I may not use it."Therefore he decided to provide the function. When downloading the client-side, offline version and the online version offered. Project data for the offline version will not be sent to the EasyEDA’s server and kept by themselves; for the online version, while the files are saved to the EasyEDA server, it will also be saved to a personal computer with double insurance. The offline version is expected to serve just a few users among tens of thousands of users each day. They made such an endeavor to meet the needs of a sense of security.

Higher quality PCB, higher trust

JLCPCB is a global company that owns 5 independent factories, not in the shared factory. Since PCB manufacturing activities become more open, sharing, collaborative, and flexible, shared factories are used by some PCB companies who don’t have enough manufacturing capabilities or just play a middle role between PCB customers and PCB factories. It means when you order a PCB from a company that uses a shared factory, the PCB is produced in an unknown fab. Of course, we have to admit this new mode meets some consumer's needs when people don’t care where and how the PCB is produced. However, the board's reliability is very important to the end products, especially for electronic hardware products. The trust builds on the product quality when you upload your Gerber file on JLCPCB. They produce it in their own 5 big plants. Quality is the life of PCB, choosing trusted merchants and trusted merchants' factories is vital for the end product. How to perfectly cater to the needs of consumers and ensure the quality of service while also continuously improving, so that more people around the world can benefit? They keep an open and accepting attitude, listen to the needs of consumers: besides the PCB prototype, improving SMT services is also becoming more and more important for PCB consumers. JLCPCB just published the news of the JLCPCB SMT Road Map, they will support 80% of components assemble in LCSC in 2021, now is just 20%; they will support double sides assembly, now is just single side; they will support more quantity SMT assembly in the near future. 2021, is also a great year for JLCPCB SMT. The news gains a lot of good feedback on Twitter. Actually many people know JLCPCBfrom some famous makers, like GreatScott, AlexGyver, HacksmithIndustries, when they are using JLCPCB, what keeps you waiting?

Connect with the world

JLCPCB&EasyEDA is in line with international standards for in-depth research and development for software technology and hardware technology. The entire process needs electronic engineers’ participation, suggestions, modification, and re-research. They believe technology serves engineers or creators. Therefore, JLCPCB&EasyEDA reorganizes and integrates resources and starts anew to make greater progress, striving to meet the habits and preferences of more users, non-stop unique experience, Only then can their existence be valuable. JLCPCB&EasyEDA trust in long and stable joint effort can achieve in-depth technology, then you can believe in them. It is so-called Design, Make, Then trust”. JLCB&EasyEDA co&branding event. Get coupon & Join JLC&EDA Group

How to Increase EF Core Performance for Saving Multiple Entities?

Hello friends, I hope you all are doing great. In today's tutorial, we will have a look at How to Increase EF Core Performance for Saving Multiple Entities? EF Core works well for simple CRUD operations but for saving multiple entities EF Core provides poor performance. So, today we will use a third-party EF Core extension named "Z.EntityFramework.Extensions.EFCore", designed by ZZZ Projects, which will increase the EF Core performance significantly. I will be using a BulkSaveChanges Method of this library which is specifically designed for saving bulk data in an SQL database.

ZZZ Projects is a trusted company and has designed numerous .NET libraries, a few having downloads in millions. So, you can completely trust this extension library.

• Here's a video for this tutorial, which will give you a practical demonstration of this project i.e. How to add this Library to your project and how to use this extension method BulkSaveChanges:

Before starting with the actual process, let's first have a look at What is EF Core?

What is EF Core?

EF Core is an Object Relational Mapper(ORM) and is used as a bridge between the ASP.Net Core application & its database. Thanks to EF Core, now there's no need to write complex SQL queries for database-related operations, instead, developers can easily perform all database CRUD operations in C# language(using EF Core). Although designed by Microsoft, but EF Core is a separate module and we can add it to our .NET application from the Nuget library.

Low Performance of EF Core

• ORM(i.e. EF Core) provides a simple instructions-set for database CRUD operations and proves very friendly to developers, but it has few drawbacks as well.
• One of the main disadvantages of EF Core is its low performance, which not only slows down your application but also increases the database interactions(cloud providers may charge extra).
• Moreover, as the number of data(you want to save in the database) increases, the EF Core performance decreases.

EF Core Performance for multiple Entities

• In a professional .NET application development, there come many scenarios where the developer needs to save multiple entities in the database i.e. user notifications, real-time messages etc.
• When multiple entities are saved using EF Core, it doesn't save them in a single SQL session.
• Instead, it takes multiple round-trips to the database, which increases the overall time for the data-saving process.

So, now let's have a look at How to increase the EF Core Performance for multiple entities by using BulkSaveChanges(provided by Z Extension), instead of SaveChanges(provided by EF Core):

What is BulkSaveChanges Method?

• BulkSaveChanges is a simple function, automatically generated by EF Core Extension Library and is used for saving multiple entities in the database.
• BulkSaveChanges increases the performance of EF Core by 3 to 4 times and its performance is exponential to a number of entities.
• First of all, you need to download this project designed in ASP.NET Core:

Download Asp.Net Core Project

• Open it in Visual Studio and first run the Migration commands for setting up the SQL database.

How to add EF Core Extension Library

• If you check the NuGet packages in the above project, you will find these four packages installed in it, shown in the below figure:

• You must be familiar with the first 3 NuGet packages, as they are used to add EF Core libraries in the .Net project.
• The fourth one is the NuGet package of EF Core extension Library, designed by ZZZ Projects.
• If you click on the Browse tab and make a search for "Z.EntityFramework", you will find results, as shown in the below figure:

• These NuGet packages are designed by ZZZ Projects, and from this list, I have installed the second one, named: Z.EntityFrameworkCore.Extensions.EFCore.

Methods offered by Z Extension Library

• After adding this NuGet package of ZZZ Projects, its methods will become readily available under the instance of DbContext class.
• I am going to discuss BulkSaveChanges Method only(in today's lecture) but it has a wide range of methods for improving the performance of DBContext class, used in different scenarios, depending on requirements.
• Here's a list of few other methods, offered by this EF Core Extension Library:

BulkSaveChanges Method to improve performance of EF Core

Now, let's have a look at the implementation of the BulkSaveChanges Method in our Asp.Net Core Application:

• In the Models folder, open the SubjectRepository.cs file and here you will find two methods, named:
  • Add1() Method: It will use the default SaveChanges() Method of EFCore.
  • Add2() Method: It will be using the new BulkSaveChanges() Method of EF Core Extension Library.
• Both of these methods are shown in the below figure:

• As you can see in the above code, it's too easy to use the BulkSaveChanges() method, as it's called on the same instance of DBContext class, on which I have called the default SaveChanges() method.
• Moreover, I have placed a stopwatch function around these methods to calculate the time taken by them, for saving 5000 entities in the database.

Now, let's save 5000 entities using these two methods, and look at the results:

SaveChanges vs BulkSaveChanges

•  I have tested these methods three times each and created a comparison table.
• In each of these testing trials, I have saved 5000 entities in the underlying SQL database.
• Here's the result of the comparison, SaveChanges vs BulkSaveChanges: (all these readings are in milliseconds)

• As you can see in the above comparison table, the BulkSaveChanges method is 3 to 4 times faster than the SaveChanges method.

For a practical demonstration of this project, watch the above video, where I have completely demonstrate How to add this Z extension Library to your project and how to use the BulkSaveChanges method to improve the performance of EF Core. So, that was all today, if you have any questions, please ask in the comments. Thanks for reading!!! :)

What is Stoichiometry? How it helps in Balancing Reactions?

The topic we are going to discuss today can be crowned as the most celebrated concepts in the field of Chemistry, the most celebrated amongst the chemists yet most hated amongst the students due to its complexity, who loves balancing chemical equations? Definitely no one! So cutting it short we are here to discuss " Stoichiometry ". The very first time I encountered this word years ago it felt like a tongue twister to me, let's learn to pronounce it first, stoichiometry is pronounced as "stoy- key-om-Et-tree", you would definitely learn to pronounce it well by the end of this discussion, keep trying! So, let's get started with Stoichiometry:

What is Stoichiometry?

• In a chemical reaction, different reactants react together in different quantities and generate products.
• For example, in the below chemical reaction, Hydrogen & Oxygen are reactants and they are producing water as a result of an exothermic reaction:

• As you can see in the above reaction,
  • Reactants: 2 atoms of hydrogen + 2 atoms of oxygen
  • Product: 2 atoms of hydrogen + 1 atom of oxygen.
• So clearly, there's a molecular difference between reactants & products and according to the Law of Conversation of mass:

"Mass of a system(chemical reaction) remains constant over time, if no energy enters or leaves the system."

• In simple words, the molecular mass of reactants must be equal to that of products and if it's not the case, then such reactions are called UnBalanced Reactions.

UnBalanced Reactions

• Unbalanced Reactions are also called Skeletal Reactions and provide information only about the type of ingredients & Products used in a chemical reaction.
• It doesn't give any information about the quantity of the reactants or the products.

Balanced Reactions

• A chemical reaction, which strictly follows the law of conservation of mass i.e. the molecular mass of reactants must be equal to that of products is called Balanced Reaction.
• For balancing a chemical reaction, numerical coefficients are used and are placed on the left side of the entity.
• Now let's balance the above unbalaced reaction to understand it completely, balanced reaction is shown in the below figure:

• As you can see in the above figure, I have used Numerical values called Coefficients to balance the equation.
• Now, in this balanced reaction, we have an equal number of atoms in reactants and products, i.e.:
  • Reactants: 4 atoms of Hydrogen + 2 atoms of Oxygen.
  • Products: 4 atoms of Hydrogen + 2 atoms of Oxygen.
• These coefficients are simply multiplied by the number of atoms.
• This technique of balancing a chemical reaction is called Stoichiometry.

Advantages of Balancing a Chemical Reaction

• As we have seen in the above water reaction, once we have balanced the reaction, it got clear that we need 2 moles(molecules) of Hydrogen and 1 mole(molecule) of oxygen, if we want to produce 2 moles(molecules) of water.
• So, with the help of a balanced equation, a scientist can easily calculate the number of ingredients for producing a certain amount of product.

Now let's have a look at a proper definition of Stoichiometry:

Stoichiometry Definition

• Stoichiometry is a set of mathematical techniques, used for determining a quantitative relationship between reactants and products in a chemical equation/reaction.
• The term stoichiometry has been derived from the two Greek words, the first one is “Stiochos” which means elements and the second one is “metry” which means measuring, so the word collectively means "Measuring Elements".
• It was coined by Jeremias Benjamin in 1972, in the first volume of his book Richter's Stoichiometry also known as the Art of Measuring the Chemical Elements.

Stoichiometric Coefficients:

• Coefficients are the whole numbers, written in front of the elemental symbols in the equation, indicating the number of moles or the number of molecules.
• If there is no coefficient in front of a symbol, then 1 is assumed to be the coefficient.

Now let's have a look at why do we need Stoichiometry in chemistry:

Why do we need stoichiometry?

• We need stoichiometry for two reasons, mentioned as follows:
  1. For balancing a chemical reaction.
  2. For conversions i.e. grams to moles & moles to grams.

Let's understand both of them in detail:

Balancing a Chemical Reaction

• There are no fixed rules for balancing a chemical reaction, it depends more on your analytical skills, but there are few tricks.
• While balancing a chemical reaction, always balance individual elements one by one, as in a water reaction, we first balanced oxygen and then hydrogen.
• First balance that element, which has the least occurrences in the reaction, as for water oxygen atoms appeared 3 times, while hydrogen atoms were 4 times.
• Try to balance single elements first, as balancing elements from a compound is bit difficult.
• But again as I said earlier, these are few tricks to ease the process, but it mainly depends on analytical skills and practice.
• Your equation is said to be balanced when it will have an equal number of atoms on both sides i.e. obeying the Law of conservation of mass.
• So, let's balance few reactions to understand How it works:

Stoichiometry Example1: Water Reaction

• I have already shown both unbalanced & balanced equations of water but now let's have a look at the steps taken to balance it.
• So, we have an unbalanced equation as shown in the below figure:

• As you can see in the above figure, we have an unbalanced equation, so we need to analyze, which element can be balanced easily.
• Clearly, we are using 2 atoms of oxygen in reactants but the product contains only 1 atom.
• So, we need to multiply the product by 2 so that, we could balance oxygen items, as shown in the below figure:

• We have balanced oxygen items in the above equation, but now in reactants, we are using 2 hydrogen atoms but in the product, we have 4 atoms.
• So, in order to balance hydrogen atoms, we need to multiply hydrogen reactant with 2 as well, as shown in the below figure:

• Now we have an equal number of atoms(of both hydrogen & oxygen) in reactants and product and we can say, we have a balanced equation now.
• So, if we want to produce 2 moles of water(36g molar mass), then we have to combine 2 moles of hydrogen(4g) and 1 mole of oxygen(32g).

Now let's have a look at another example:

Stoichiometry Example 2: Propane Reacts with Oxygen

• Now, lets have a look at another reaction, where Propane reacts with oxygen and generates carbon dioxide and water, as shown in the below figure:

• As you can see in the Stoichiometry example, I have followed the above mentioned tricks.
• First of all, the point to notice is I have solved all elements individually, first Carbon, then Hydrogen and finally Oxygen.
• Moreover, I have Carbon first because it has appeared in two entities and was quite easy to balance.
• And in the last step, we got our balanced equation having an equal number of atoms on both sides of the reaction.

Stoichiometry Example 3

• Here's a quick example to show you that in complex equations, we may have to re-evaluate our coefficients, as shown in the below figure:

I hope you guys have completely understood the concept of balancing a chemical reaction. Always remember, whenever you are going to solve a stoichiometric numerical problem, you have to balance the chemical equation first, otherwise you won't be able to solve the problem correctly. It is a necessary evil! Don't skip it, okay? Now let's have a look at How to perform conversions from one unit to another using balanced equations.

Unit Conversions using Stoichiometry

In the previous section, we have seen How to balance a chemical reaction and now we will discuss How to make unit conversions of chemical elements using these balanced equations.

• Normally, the quantity of a chemical substance is measured using two different units, which are:
  1. Moles.
  2. Grams.

Moles Definition

• Mole is the SI unit for quantity/amount of a chemical substance and 1 mole of any substance contains 6.02 × 10²³(Avogadro's no) atoms of that chemical substance.
• The term molecules and moles are used interchangeably, and if you ask me, mole is just the short form of the molecule.
• So generally, the number of molecules of a chemical substance, used in a chemical reaction is denoted by the unit called Mole(denoted as mol).
• As you can see in the below water reaction, 2 moles of Hydrogen are reacting with 1 mole of oxygen and producing 2 moles of water.

Now let's have a look at the grams definition:

Grams Defnition

• When chemical substances are measured using their molar/molecular mass, then the Grams unit is used, denoted by g.
• Molar mass can be defined as the mass of one mole of a substance in grams.”
• Again let's understand it with water reaction:

• So, in the above reaction, I have displayed both moles and grams, so if you want to use the grams unit then we can say that:
• 4g of hydrogen is reacting with 32g of Oxygen and producing 36g of water.
• You must have noticed that we have an equal number of mass(in grams) on both sides of the equation as the balanced equation must obey Law of conservation of mass.

Moles Vs Grams

The following table shows the difference between Moles & Grams:

ESP32 Module Features and Technical Specs
No.	Mole(mol)	Grams(g)
1	The Mole unit is used to count the number of entities(chemical substances) used.	Gram unit is used to measure the amount(molar mass) of chemical substance i.e. how much quantity is used?
2	Moles are normally integers	mass in grams could be a fraction.
3	Total moles of reactants may or may not be equal to that of products in a balanced chemical reaction.	The total mass(in grams) of reactants must be equal to that of products in a balanced chemical reaction.
4	Mole unit is used in theory mostly.

Molar Ratio

• As we have seen, Stoichiometry is the knowledge of balancing the chemical equations.
• These chemical reactions are actually giving us the ratio between reactants and products.
• Let's understand this ratio with water reaction:

• So, in water reaction, we have a ratio of 2:1:2 between Hydrogen, oxygen and water respectively.
• As this ratio is between moles of the reactants and products, thus it's called the Molar ratio.

Now let's have a look at How to make conversions between moles and grams using the molar ratio.

Conversions between Grams & Moles

There are four types of conversions that can be performed between these two units in stoichiometry, which are:

• Moles-Moles Conversion
• Grams-Moles Conversion
• Grams-Grams Conversion
• Moles-Grams Conversion

Grams-Grams Conversion is the most widely used one. Now let's solve few Stoichiometry problems to understand these conversions. These real-life problems will also help you understand the importance of stoichiometry calculations and how they are used in chemistry.

Stoichiometry Problems

In stoichiometry we come across a number of numerical problems that ask for the following calculations;

• Finding out the limiting reactant of a reaction.
• Calculating the actual yield of a reaction.
• Theoretical yield of a chemical reaction.
• Finding out the empirical formula of a compound after combustion analysis.

All these calculations are stoichiometric in nature as it involves the above-mentioned conversions. In this discussion, we are going to pick one problem from each of the above topics and I would help you solve and understand them in the best possible way. Let's get started!

Find Limiting Reactant using Stoichiometry

Limiting reactant can be defined as:

• A limiting reactant(also called a limiting agent) is a chemical substance/element, that takes part in a chemical reaction in a limited amount & controls the amount of product produced.

Many times, we are asked to identify the limiting reactant in a numerical problem, following is one of such problems:

Stoichiometry Problem Statement:

During a chemical reaction 3.2 moles of N₂ react with 5.4 moles of H₂ to form NH₃, how much amount of NH₃ can be formed in the process? Which one is the limiting reactant? How of the excess reactant would be left over after the consumption of the limiting reactant? Solution:

Step 1: Write the Balanced Equation of the chemical reaction:

• We will start by writing the balanced chemical equation for the above reaction

N₂ (g) + 3H₂ (g) ? 2NH₃ (g)

Step 2: Determine the Limiting Reactant b/w N₂ & H₂

• We will now determine the amount of N₂ consumed by H₂.
• So, from above balanced equation, we have the molar ratio of 1:3:2 between nitrogen, hydrogen and ammonia respectively.
• So, we can find the limiting reactant as shown in the below figure:

• As, we can see in the above calculations that 9.6 mol of H₂ Is required to fully consume 3.2 mol of N₂, but in the statement, we are only provided with 5.4 mol of H₂, so clearly H₂ is our limiting reactant here.
• Now, we will be calculating the total amount of N₂ consumed with the provided 5.4 mol of H₂, so:

3 mol of H₂ consumes = 1 mol of N₂

1 mol of H₂ consumes = 1/3 mol of N₂

5.4 mol of H₂ consumes = 5.4 × 1 / 3 mol of N₂ = 1.8 mol of N₂.

Step 3: Determine maximum product produced by the limiting reactant

• Next, we need to find the amount of product, that we can produce using these reactants.
• As we already know that H₂ is our limiting reactant, so simply we need to apply the molar ratio between H₂ and NH₃.
• For this, we can do the following calculation:

3 mol of H₂ produces = 2 mol of NH₃

1 mol of H₂ will produce = 2/3 mol of NH₃

5.4 mol of H₂ will produce = 5.4 × 2 / 3 mol of NH₃ = 3.6 mol of NH₃

• So, 3.6 mol of ammonia is the maximum amount, that can be produced with the number of reactants given in the problem statement.

Step 4: Determine the amount of excess reactant

• If you want to determine the amount of N₂ still left after the reaction, there is a simple formula for that i.e. number of moles given - number of moles used = amount of excess reactant left
• 3.2 mol - 1.8 mol = 1.4 mol of N₂ are left after the consumption of the limiting reactant.

Step 5: Conclude the results

The conclusion can be written as;

• H₂ is the limiting reactant
• N₂ is the excess reactant, so only 1.8 mol will be consumed and 1.4 mol will be left.
• 3.6 mol of NH₃ can be produced with the reaction of 5.4 mol of H₂ and 1.8 mol of N₂.

Calculating Actual Yield and Theoretical Yield

First, let's have a look at their definitions:

Yield Definition

• It is the amount of product formed during a chemical reaction.

Theoretical Yield

• The amount of stoichiometric product calculated on paper without any practical experimentation, we can also regard it as an estimated product.

Experimental/Actual Yield

• The actual amount of product formed during a chemical reaction on practical grounds.

Practical yield can be equal or less than the theoretical yield, most of the students ask why and how it happens? Here is a simple answer:

• We don't have ideal conditions of temperature and pressure in the industry
• There is a loss of reactants in the process of transferring, mixing etc.
• Mechanical losses are always there which can never be ignored.
• An impure reactant can add to the agony of the procurement team as well

Percentage yield

• Percentage yield is the percentage ratio of actual/experiment yield to the theoretical yield.
• It can be mathematically written as:

% yield = actual yield / theoretical yield × 100

Why we use this concept? You must be thinking why we need this simple percentage in our lives, let me tell you why! It is extremely crucial to industries either chemical or pharmaceutical, they calculate the amount of profit or loss through this method. You might have faced the discontinuation of your favorite soap or shampoo or bubble gum in your life, it was all due to the decrease in the %age yield of the product that was not good enough to continue because when a product has a lesser profit margin there is no other choice than to discontinue it! Production is highly dependent on this concept regarding it to be a success factor for a product to rule the market. It’s time for a numerical problem to help you better understand the concept!

PROBLEM STATEMENT

42 grams of hydrogen reacts with nitrogen to form 120g of ammonia, determine the percentage yield of the product formed during the reaction.

Step1: Write the balanced chemical equation

N₂ (g) + 3H₂ (g) ? 2NH₃ (g)

 

Step 2: Convert grams into moles

• As the quantities are given in grams, so we need to convert them to moles first. So,

Moles of H₂= mass in grams / molar mass

= 42/2 = 21 moles

 

Step 3: Calculate NH3 Theoretical Yield

• Next, we need to calculate the moles of the product by comparing it with the reactant using a balanced chemical equation.
• So, the molar ratio between H₂ & NH₃ is 3:2, so:

3 mol of H₂ produces = 2 mol of NH₃

1 mol of H₂ will produce = 2/3 mol of NH₃

21 mol of H₂ will produce = 21 x 2/3 mol of NH₃ = 14 mol of NH₃

Convert moles into grams because the actual yield has been given in grams and units of two quantities to be compared must be the same.

Mass in gram of NH₃= number of mole × molar mass = 14 × 17= 238g

Step 4: Calculate Percentage Yield

• Now, calculate the percentage yield by putting the values into the given formula:

Actual yield of NH3 = 120 grams

% yield = actual yield ÷ theoretical yield × 100 

= 120 / 238 × 100

            = 50.5% is the calculated percentage yield of NH3

This is how we calculate the %age yield of a chemical reaction.

Calculating Empirical formula with Stoichiometry

As we are well aware of combustion, how and why it happens, it's time to solve the stoichiometric problems related to combustion analysis in which students are mostly asked to find empirical formulas. The empirical formula is different from the molecular formula, don't confuse both with each other here's why! “Empirical formula can be defined as the simplest ratio of atoms or elements present in a compound” Example: The molecular formula of benzene is C6H6 meanwhile the empirical formula is CH. Features of Empirical Formula:

• Contains the most simplified ratio of the moles of elements making a compound
• It is simply a ratio, not an exact number or amount of atoms or molecules making a compound.
• Determined by weight percentages by converting them into grams.
• It is not commonly used in experimental schemes as compared to molecular formulas.

Features of Molecular Formula:

• It is the actual number of atoms or molecules forming the compound
• We calculate it after the calculation of the empirical formula
• It is a by-weight representation of every constituent particle making the molecule.
• It is commonly used in chemical reactions and stoichiometric calculations
• The molecular formula is always a multiple of the empirical formula; we can calculate empirical formula by a simple calculation at glance.

NUMERICAL PROBLEM

• A compound is composed of 52.14% of carbon, 34.7% oxygen and 13.13% of hydrogen by mass. Given that the molar mass of the compound is 138.204 g/ mole, Calculate The empirical formula and molecular formula.

Step 1: Convert percentages into grams

• Carbon = 52.14g
• Hydrogen =13.13g
• Oxygen=34.7g

Step 2: Convert grams into moles

• For carbon:

no of moles = mass in grams/ molar mass

52.14 = mole / 12 g per mole = 4.34 moles

• For hydrogen:

no of moles = mass in grams / molar mass = 13.13 / 1 = 13.02 moles

• For oxygen:

no of moles = mass in grams / molar mass = 34.73/ 16 = 2.17 moles

 

Step 3: Dividing with a common denominator

• Divide the number of moles of all 3 atoms with the lowest number of moles obtained:

Number of moles for Carbon =4.34 moles/ 2.17= 2

Number of moles of hydrogen= 13.13/2.17=6

Number of moles of oxygen = 2.17/2.17 =1

Step 4: Setup your Empirical formula

• C₂H₆O is our empirical formula

Step 5: Calculate the molecular formula

• Add up and calculate the atomic mass of each element

2C + 6 H + O

= 2×12 + 6× 1.008 + 16 = 46.08

Molar mass/mass in grams = 138/46 = 3

Multiply 3 with the empirical formula subscripts

So the molecular formula is C₆H₁₈O₃

  This is how we calculate the empirical formula, summarizing it;

• Convert %age into grams
• Then convert grams into moles afterward
• Divide the moles with the least amount of moles obtained
• The digit obtained is the empirical formula!

Summing up, stoichiometry is hard to understand at first but practice can make it easier for you, have patience and don't fret, learn the formulas by heart and efficiently rearrange them to extract the desired entity which is missing! See you soon with the next topic, good day!

Home Security System using Arduino UNO in Proteus

Hello friends, I hope you all are doing well. In today's tutorial, we are going to design a Home Security System using Arduino UNO in Proteus software. It's the most commonly designed engineering project, especially in electrical, electronics and mechatronics engineering. Normally engineering students design it as a semester project during their engineering course.

So, today we will design a home security system from scratch in Proteus software. I have given the complete project below to download but I would suggest you to design it on your own so that you could understand it better. So, let's get started:

Where To Buy?
No.	Components	Distributor	Link To Buy
1	Battery 12V	Amazon	Buy Now
2	Buzzer	Amazon	Buy Now
3	LM7805	Amazon	Buy Now
4	OptoCoupler	Amazon	Buy Now
5	Relay	Amazon	Buy Now
6	Keypad 4x3	Amazon	Buy Now
7	LCD 20x4	Amazon	Buy Now
8	Flame Sensors	Amazon	Buy Now
9	MQ-2	Amazon	Buy Now
10	PIR Sensor	Amazon	Buy Now
11	Arduino Uno	Amazon	Buy Now

Home Security System: Project Description

• Before going into the detail, let's first download the complete Proteus Simulation with Arduino Code, by clicking the below button:

Home Security System using Arduino UNO in Proteus

Let me first give you a detailed project description i.e. what we actually want to design? We want to build a Home Security Project, which should follow these security protocols:

• Fire alarm: It should be able to detect the fire and sound an alarm to alert everyone at home.
• Smoke alarm: It should detect the gas(smoke) and turn on the alarm(if detected).

The above-mentioned security protocols will be followed 24/7. Moreover, there will be two security modes in the project, named:

• Secure Mode.
• Normal Mode.

Let's have a look at both of these modes, one by one:

1. Secure Mode

• This mode should be selected, when owners want to completely secure their home i.e. they are leaving home or while sleeping at night.
• If the Secure Mode is selected, the project should follow the following security protocols:
  • Intruder Detection Alarm: It should detect the presence of any human being in the occupied premises.
  • Windows Security Alarm: If someone tries to break through the windows, the project should sound an alarm.
  • Door Security Alarm: If any intruder tries to break through the main door, it should again sound the alarm to alert everyone.

2. Normal Mode

• This mode should be selected, when owners are at home and just want to take the basic security measures.
• In this mode, only the Fire Alarm & Gas Alarm will work, while all other alarms will remain on standby.

Other Features

• There should be an LCD, to display values of all parameters.
• It should have a buzzer to generate an alarm, in case of emergency.
• There should a Push Button to make switches between these security modes.

Here's the final simulation, which we are going to design in today's lecture:

So, these are our requirements, which we want to achieve in this Home Security Project. Now let's have a look at the components selected for this project:

Home Security System: Components Selected

Now let's have a look at the list of components, which I have selected for this Home Security Project. I will also briefly explain the purpose of using each component.

1. Arduino UNO

• As clearly it's an Embedded Systems Project, so first of all we need to select a Microcontroller for our project.
• As I have mentioned earlier, we will use the Arduino UNO Microcontroller board for designing this project.
• Arduino UNO will act as the brain of the project and will control all sensors and modules.

2. Flame Sensor:

• A flame sensor is used to detects the presence of fire.
• The sensor basically consists of a photo-diode that detects the Infrared rays that emit from the fire. When it detects a fire, its output goes HIGH.

3. Gas Sensor (MQ-6)

• MQ-6 Gas Sensor is used to detect the concentration of gases in the environment.
• The sensor produces a potential difference proportional to the concentration of the particular gases.
• The type of gas that it detects depends upon the material used in the sensor.
• There are many gas sensors available in the market i.e. MQ-2, MQ-3, MQ-4 etc.
• These sensors are available as ready-made modules for easy interfacing with the microcontroller.

4. PIR Sensor(HC-SR501)

• HC-SR501 PIR sensor is used to detect any human being(intruder) in the Secure Mode.
• It detects the IR radiations from the human movement & generates a pulse on its output.
• The time period of the pulse could be varied by using the potentiometer on the sensor.

5. Vibration sensor(SW-420)

• The SW-420 vibration sensor is used to detect any forced entry through windows.
• In Secure Mode, if someone tries to open the window, the sensor will detect vibrations and will send a HIGH signal to the microcontroller.

6. Infrared Sensor

• An infrared sensor will be placed at the door and someone tried to enter through that door, the sensor will detect it.
• It consists of an IR transmitter and a photo-diode that are placed close to each other.
• If any object movement occurs in front of the sensor, the IR rays hit the object and return back with a particular angle called incident angle.
• This pulls the comparator output to ground or logic LOW.

7. LCD 20x4

• LCD 20x4 will be used for displaying the values of all these sensors.
• It will also display useful information i.e. which mode is selected.

8. Buzzer

• A small 5V Buzzer is used to sound the alarm.

9. LM7805

• LM7805 is a voltage regulator and is used to convert voltage from 12V to 5V.
• Power sources(i.e. battery, adapter etc.) available are normally 12V, as it has become a standard.
• Moreover, many components also operate at 12V like a buzzer or DC motor.
• While microcontrollers and sensors work on 5V, so in Embedded projects, it's quite necessary to design a voltage regulator from 12V to 5V and in some cases 3.3V.
• I normally prefer LM7805 for converting voltage from 12V to 5V.

10. Resistances(1kohm)

• We need to use a few resistances of 1kohm.

11. Small LED

• We will also use a small LED for power indication.

12. Capacitors(100uF)

• We will also use few capacitors of 100uF, as it removes any noise/ripples.

So, these are the components, we are going to use for designing Home Security System. Now let's get started with designing the Proteus Simulation:

Proteus Simulation of Home Security System

As I have told you earlier, I am going to use Proteus software for designing this project. Proteus is an excellent simulation tool, where we will not only design the circuit of this project but will also test its output. I always design my programming algorithms on simulations as working on real hardware is too time-consuming. You should remove all your programming bugs in simulation and once confirmed then design your project in real hardware. So, let's start:

Install Proteus Libraries

• Arduino boards & sensors' modules are not available in the Proteus components list.
• So, first of all, we need to install these Proteus libraries:
  • Arduino Library for Proteus.
  • Flame Sensor Library for Proteus.
  • Gas Sensor Library for Proteus.
  • PIR Sensor Library for Proteus.
  • Vibration Sensor Library for Proteus.
  • Infrared Sensor Library for Proteus.
• Adding these libraries is quite simple, you just need to place their files in the library folder of Proteus software.
• If you got any issues, then read this guide on How to add a Library in Proteus 8.

Once you added all the libraries, now open your Proteus software.

Designing Circuit Diagram in Proteus

• Now we need to design a circuit for our project, so select these components from Proteus Components Search Box.
• First of all, let's design the voltage regulator circuit using LM7805, which will be simply converting the voltage from 12V to 5V.

• As you can see in the above figure, I have used 12V Battery, while the output of LM7805 is showing 5V and I have also placed an LED for power indication.

LCD Interfacing with Arduino:

• Next, we need to interface 20x4 LCD with Arduino UNO, so design the circuit as shown in the below figure:

Next, we need to interface five sensors with Arduino UNO, so let's add them to our Proteus simulation:

Sensors Interfacing with Arduino:

• These are simple digital & analog sensors and are all powered up at 5V.
• So, simply connect them as shown in the below figure:

• The Flame Sensor is connected to pin A0 of Arduino UNO.
• Gas Sensor is connected to pin A1 of Arduino UNO.
• PIR Sensor is connected to pin A2 of Arduino UNO.
• The Vibration Sensor is connected to pin A3 of Arduino UNO.
• The Infrared Sensor is connected to pin A4 of Arduino UNO.

For simulation, ensure all hex files are uploaded to each sensor for proper working. You can upload the source code hex file to the Arduino, by pressing Ctrl+E or by right click --> Edit properties.

Buzzer & Push Button:

• Finally, we need to add the Buzzer to sound the alarm in emergency cases, I have connected it to Pin A5 of Arduino UNO.
• I have also connected a push-button for switching the modes, connected to Pin 7 of Arduino UNO, as shown in the below figure:

• Here's the image of the complete Proteus Simulation for Home Security System:

Now let's design the Arduino programming code for Home Security Project:

Arduino Code for Home Security System

In the previous section, we have designed the Proteus simulation of the project, now let's design its Arduino Code to make it alive. Let's get started:

Initialization LCD Arduino Code

• First of all, we need to define all our variables, as you can see in the code shown in the right figure.
• I have included the Liquid Crystal Library, which is used to operate LCD.
• Next, I have defined all my sensors to the respective pins and then initialized boolean variables for storing the output of sensors.
• In the Setup loop, I have made the sensors' pins input pullup using the pinMode Arduino command.
• Finally, displayed an initialization message on the LCD screen i.e. "Home Security System using Arduino UNO By TEP".
• The message will display for around 1 second and then LCD will be cleared and the SensorDisplay function will be called, which will simply write sensors' names on the LCD screen.
• Now compile your code and add the hex file in Arduino UNO and run your PRoteus simulation.
• If everything goes fine, you will get results as shown in the below figure:

So far, we have just displayed the sensor's names, now let's read the sensors' data in the loop section:

Reading Sensors' Data

• In the loop section, first of all, we need to read the sensors' data using the digitalRead command, as shown in the code.
• After reading the sensor's data, I have called the SensorValues function, in which I have placed a check on each sensor's value and updated it on LCD.
• It's quite straightforward code, if the sensor is giving HIGH output, I am displaying Yes on LCD and if it's LOW, I am simply printing No.
• We haven't yet defined the modes, so the project will keep on reading the sensors and will display their respective value in the LCD.
• As you can see in the below figure, if the TestPin of the sensor is HIGH, its respective value on LCD is showing "Yes" and if it's LOW then "No" is written.
• Now, if you change any sensor's value, its respective value on LCD will be updated.

So, we have successfully interfaced our sensors with Arduino UNO and now it's time to add operational modes to our project.

Two Operational Modes

• As I mentioned earlier, we need to add two operational modes in our project, and the push button will be used for conversion from one mode to another.
• So, I have simply added an If loop in my code, as shown in the figure on the right side.
• In normal mode, I have simply displayed the name of the mode at the first line of LCD.
• While in secure mode, I am checking if either of the sensors goes HIGH, simply turn ON the Buzzer.
• Although, you won't be able to hear the Buzzer sound in the below figure, but you can see Buzzer's Pin is HIGH because two of the sensors are giving a response. Check the video for Buzzer working.

• We normally need to use an optocoupler or relay driver in between the buzzer and microcontroller as buzzers normally operate at 12V, but 5V buzzers are also available.
• Here's the complete Arduino Code:

/* * All rights reserved to TEP www.TheEngineeringProjects.com */ #include const int rs = 12, en = 11, d4 = 5, d5 = 4, d6 = 3, d7 = 2; LiquidCrystal lcd(rs, en, d4, d5, d6, d7); #define Flame A0 #define Gas A1 #define Pir A2 #define Vib A3 #define Ir A4 #define Buzzer A5 #define Switch 7 boolean Fire, Smoke, Intruder, Window, Door; boolean Mode = false; void setup() { pinMode(Flame,INPUT_PULLUP); pinMode(Gas,INPUT_PULLUP); pinMode(Pir,INPUT_PULLUP); pinMode(Vib,INPUT_PULLUP); pinMode(Ir,INPUT_PULLUP); pinMode(Switch,INPUT_PULLUP); pinMode(Buzzer,OUTPUT); lcd.begin(20,4); pinMode(Buzzer, OUTPUT); lcd.setCursor(0,1); lcd.print("HOME SECURITY SYSTEM"); lcd.setCursor(0,2); lcd.print(" USING ARDUINO UNO "); lcd.setCursor(7,3); lcd.print("By TEP "); //delay(700); lcd.clear(); SensorDisplay(); } void loop() { Fire = digitalRead(Flame); Smoke = digitalRead(Gas); Intruder = digitalRead(Pir); Window = digitalRead(Vib); Door = digitalRead(Ir); Mode = digitalRead(Switch); SensorValues(); if(Mode==false) // Normal mode { lcd.setCursor(4,0); lcd.print("Normal Mode"); } else // Secure Mode { lcd.setCursor(4,0); lcd.print("Secure Mode"); if((Fire == HIGH) || (Smoke == HIGH) || (Intruder == HIGH) || (Window == HIGH) || (Door == HIGH)){ digitalWrite(Buzzer, HIGH); }else{ digitalWrite(Buzzer, LOW); } } } void SensorDisplay() { lcd.setCursor(0,1); lcd.print("Fire:"); lcd.setCursor(10,1); lcd.print("Smoke:"); lcd.setCursor(0,2); lcd.print("Door:"); lcd.setCursor(10,2); lcd.print("Window:"); lcd.setCursor(0,3); lcd.print("Intruder:"); } void SensorValues() { if(Fire == true){ lcd.setCursor(6,1); lcd.print("Yes");} else{ lcd.setCursor(6,1); lcd.print("No ");} if(Smoke == true){lcd.setCursor(17,1); lcd.print("Yes");} else{lcd.setCursor(17,1); lcd.print("No ");} if(Intruder == true){lcd.setCursor(11,3); lcd.print("Yes");} else{lcd.setCursor(11,3); lcd.print("No ");} if(Window == true){lcd.setCursor(17,2); lcd.print("Yes");} else{lcd.setCursor(17,2); lcd.print("No ");} if(Door == true){lcd.setCursor(6,2); lcd.print("Yes");} else{lcd.setCursor(6,2); lcd.print("No ");} }

Future Scope of Home Security System

• Embedded has taken over the whole world because of its user-friendliness and low cost.
• Instead of hiring security guards(which is quite expensive), now smart homes in modern societies are equipped with such home security systems.
• Modern Home Security systems are even linked with local police or security agencies for emergency help.
• Moreover, these security systems are not bound to homes only, nowadays offices, banks, shopping malls etc. are all equipped with such smart security systems.

Future Work on Home Security System

• Today, we have designed a very simple Home Security System, where we interfaced few sensors and have only placed a Buzzer.
• We will continue this project and will add smart features to it.
• Let's have a look at few features, which we can add to this project:
  1. We can interface the GSM module to send messages, in case of emergency.
  2. We can add more sensors i.e. ultrasonic sensors, different types of Gas sensors in it.
  3. We can also improve our code by using interrupts instead of polling.
  4. We can also add a camera for facial recognition.
  5. To improve the security, we can add a keypad and only authorized persons will have the access to enter.
  6. The fingerprint sensor can also be used for identification purposes.

No matter what happens, you should put safety first. Even a great security system won’t ensure full protection, which is why you might want to consider secondary measures. Hiring fire watch security will assist you on a daily basis, performing tasks that machines cannot. These veterans will protect your home or office, addressing potential hazards as they appear.

So, that was all for today. I hope you guys have enjoyed today's project. If you have any questions/queries, please ask in the comments and I will try my best to resolve them asap. Thanks for reading, take care. Bye :)

Periodic Table of Elements: Definition, Groups & Trends

Hello friends, I hope you all are doing great. In today's tutorial, we will have a look at a detailed overview of Periodic Table. Understanding the Periodic Table is one of the nightmares everyone had once in a lifetime, don't fret! I was one of those people too. Today I would be breaking down this complex topic into smaller digestible chunks. Before diving deep into the topic let me introduce you to the fact that atomic number is more reliable than the atomic mass of an element, every element has a fixed atomic number and it increases by a value of 1 with every element in the modern periodic table, that is the reason why we use Atomic Number instead of Atomic Mass as the base of the modern periodic table.

History of Periodic Table

Rome wasn't built in a day, in the same way, the modern periodic table isn't the product of a single effort from a chemist or two, it took two centuries to complete. The older version of periodic table was based on Atomic Masses by Dimitri Mendeleev, Many scientists contributed to the formation of the periodic table such as:

• Doberiner presented the idea of Triads when he observed the relationship between the atomic masses of three elements. Within a Triad the central element had the atomic mass equal to the average of two corresponding elements.

• Newlands proposed the Law of Octaves in 1864 when he observed the repetition of properties in every eighth element, when elements were arranged in an order of increasing atomic masses.

Later on, after the discovery of atomic numbers by Henry Mosley in 1913 and some new elements modern periodic table is now based on the increasing order of atomic numbers which was proposed by Henry himself when he discovered atomic numbers. Let's have a look at the proper definition of periodic table:

Periodic Table Definition

Let’s start with its basic definition;

• Periodic Table is the tabular arrangement of elements in the order of increasing atomic numbers, Hydrogen having the smallest atomic number, meanwhile, Oganesson having the highest atomic number of all.
• The vertical columns from top to bottom are called Groups in the periodic table, which are 18 in number.
• The horizontal rows from left to right are called Periods. There are 7 periods in the Periodic table.
• Here's the image showing the modern Periodic Table:

Arrangement of Modern Periodic Table

The periodic table has 118 elements till now, we can figure out a lot of things about an element just by looking at it, such as:

• Atomic weight is present at the top right corner.
• Atomic number is at the top left corner.
• Electronic configuration of valence shell can be seen at the bottom left corner.

Consider the following example for better understanding:

Groups and Periods

As I have mentioned earlier, elements are arranged in an order of increasing atomic number in the form of rows and columns called periods and groups respectively. When I was a student I was always confused about period and group, so here's a trick if you're struggling too, just cram it as " top to bottom in a group" so whenever you'll think of a group you'd have an idea what exactly you're thinking about.

Blocks in Periodic Table

• Periodic table can be divided into four blocks, s, p, d and f.
• Have you ever thought why they are named s, d and p? They could have been named a, b, c or d! Let me figure this out for you:
• Blocks are named after the electronic configuration of valence electrons.
• For example, all s block elements have their valence electrons in s subshell and same goes for p block elements, interesting! Isn't it?

Groups in Periodic Table

There are 18 groups in periodic table which are named as:

• Group 1 comprising of Alkali Metals
• Group 2 having Alkaline Earth metals
• Group 3 – Group 12 housing Transition elements
• Group 13 housing Boron family
• Group 14 with Carbon family
• Group 15 containing Nitrogen family
• Group 16 having Oxygen family
• Group 17 with Halogens
• Group 18 containing Inert or Noble gases

Group 1 of Periodic Table: Alkali Metals

• This is the very first group of the periodic table and its members are called Alkali metals with elements Hydrogen being the lightest having an atomic number of 1, succeeded by Helium, Sodium, Potassium, Rubidium, lastly Cesium and Francium in the family.
• You might have thought why they are called alkali metals? Upon reacting with water these metals give strong alkalis, naming them as alkali metals. 

Physical Properties of Alkali Metals:

• Physically they are shiny, lustrous and sleek in appearance.

Chemical Properties of Alkali Metals:

• Alkali metals are highly reactive and their reactivity increases down the group.
• All of them have low Ionization energies so it is easier for them to lose an electron.
• They are mostly found in an oxidation state of +1.

Group 2 of Periodic Table

• Group 2 elements were discovered by Humphry, it contains highly reactive elements which result in oxides upon reacting with oxygen, and these oxides when dissolved in water produce strong alkali solutions taking their name as Alkaline Earth Metals.
• Alkaline earth metals have Beryllium, Magnesium, Calcium, Strontium, Barium and Radium in the group with an order of increasing atomic number.
• They are very reactive and so are considered strong reducing agents. Do you know what a reducing agent is?

“A reducing agent is a chemical species which can lose electrons easily in a chemical reaction and hence oxidizes itself”. Chemical Properties of Alkaline Earth Metals:

• They are highly reactive in their natural forms being strong reducing agents.
• They can easily become a cation with 2+ charge by losing two electrons from their outermost shell.

Physical Properties of Alkaline Earth Metals:

• They are highly abundant in nature.
• They have a shiny appearance and are often silvery-white in color.
• They have a lot of commercial applications.

Group 3-12 of Periodic Table

• This group comprises of the d and f block elements which are found in the center of the periodic table and are famously known as Transition Elements.
• d block elements are called outer transition elements meanwhile f block elements are called inner transition elements despite the fact that they occupy totally opposite places in the periodic table.
• You might have thought why d and f block elements are called transition elements?

Here is a simple answer to the question, the d and f block elements have their properties in between s and p blocks elements, some of them show the characteristic behaviors of s block that is Group 1 and 2 elements by losing electrons meanwhile some of the elements resemble p block elements by gaining electrons during a chemical reaction in this way they take their name as transition elements. Following are the families found in the transitional groups:

• Group 3 has Scandium family.
• Group 4 houses elements like Titanium making them Titanium family.
• Group 5 is called Vanadium family.
• Group 6 has Chromium family having very famous members like Tungsten.
• Group 7 is Manganese family.
• Group 8 is the Iron family, who is not familiar with this super famous element? We all have been hearing it since childhood.
• Group 9 is the Cobalt family.
• Group 10 has Nickel family with its famous members like Platinum, you all have heard of Platinum rings and bands right?
• Group 11 has been crowned by Copper along with Silver-Ag as its succeeding member.
• Group 12 lastly forms the Zinc family with its ever useful and renowned member Mercury which is the only metal found in the liquid state on room temperature, that's is the reason it is commonly used in Thermometers! 

Lanthanides and Actinides:

• These are f block, inner transitional elements with unique properties as clearly visible by their names.

Actinides have the following properties:

• Atomic number ranges from 89 to 103
• Radioactive in nature
• Valence electrons in 5f orbitals
• Oxidation state can be up to +6

Lanthanides have the following properties:

• Atomic number ranges from 57 to 71
• Valence electrons are present in 4f orbitals
• They are not radioactive in nature
• Can maximally go up to +4 oxidation state

Chemical Properties:

• They are excellent conductors of electricity because of the formation of electronic pool in their structure, when I was in school I used to think of the best conductor of all the Transition Elements, at that time I didn't have Google so I could have searched, I have got to know now, it's Silver which is the best of all these metals in terms of conductivity.
• They form complex ions and colored compounds as a product of their chemical reactions.
• They have high melting and boiling points. 

Physical Properties:

• These groups have metals which are Malleable and Ductile, which in simple terms mean; they can be turned into sheets and wires.
• In terms of physical appearance they have shiny and lustrous appearance, if you forget in any case the properties possessed by these groups just recall that Silver is a transition metal with a shiny, lustrous appearance and can be turned into jewelry too. 

Group 13 of Periodic Table

• Group 13 elements are also called Boron family with other elements like Aluminum, Gallium, Indium, Thallium and Nihonium in the order of increasing atomic number, Boron being the smallest and Nihonium being the largest element but synthetic in nature.
• Group 13 elements are also called Triels or trivalent because of the presence of three electrons in their valence shells.

Chemical Properties and Usage:

• You must have been thinking about the chemical properties of this group! So let me tell you, they are highly abundant in nature and reactive too they can react with hydrogen, oxygen and halogens forming hydrides, oxides and halides respectively.
• Boron family has isotopes too which have wide applications in medical field.
• From Boron being used in ceramics to the Aluminum which is the most abundant metal of earth crust being used in construction and metal works, Indium and Gallium are not lesser than any of the other group members, they have a lot of commercial applications too.
• Thallium is used in the production of poisons for killing reptiles and rodents.

Group 14 of Periodic Table

• This is known as the famous Carbon family with its top most members as Carbon and Silicon.

Physical Properties and Usage:

• When thinking of Carbon one must recalls the chemical reactions in Organic Chemistry which were never an easy pill to swallow! Phewww! Carbon has the unique bonding ability to form long chains which is called “Catenation”, all thanks to catenation we have another branch of chemistry known as Organic chemistry. Not only organic chemistry, but Diamond and Graphite are also the gifts of Carbon being their allotropes.

• Next to Carbon is Silicon which is one the most abundant elements on the planet Earth and is commercially used in the formation of semiconductor diodes and chips used in various technological devices. Germanium is used in the formation of semiconductors as well.
• Who's not aware of lead and tin? Both of the elements are used commercially because of their stable nature in the formation of cans, nuts and bolts.

Chemical Properties of Carbon Family

• Carbon family has four electrons in its valence shells which results in covalent bonding.
• Covalent bonding is the reason of their high melting and boiling points.
• All of the group members form hydrides, oxides and halides reacting with hydrogen, oxygen and halogens respectively.
• They are usually found in the oxidation states of +3, -4 and +4.

Group 15 of Periodic Table

• Group 15 is also known as the Nitrogen family or Pnictogens.
• The name Pnictogens points to the ability of nitrogen to choke in the absence of Oxygen. Other members of the group include Phosphorus, Arsenic and Bismuth.

Reactivity:

• Nitrogen and Phosphorus act as non-metals whereas Arsenic and Antimony have proven themselves to be metalloids, meanwhile the last member Bismuth is a metal.
• They form covalent compounds due to the presence of five electrons in their valence shell and are mostly found in the oxidation state of +3 or +5

Usage:

• Nitrogen is found abundantly in nature, you might have thought of it earlier while studying Nitrogen Cycle in your school textbooks. Chefs using liquid nitrogen to freeze a dessert instantly has always fascinated me, it is due to its unique ability to stay non-reactive at room temperature. Nitrogen is used in fertilizers and has countless commercial applications.
• Meanwhile other members of the family are not less than any other element, Phosphorus is highly flammable and used in manufacturing explosives and fireworks and has three forms red, black and white.
• Arsenic being poisonous founds its use in fertilizers.
• Bismuth is used in pharmaceutical industry for production of several beneficial drugs.

Group 16 of Periodic Table

• Elements of group 16 are also called Chalcogens, as interesting as the name sounds, the reason behind the name lies in the ore forming ability of these elements.
• Oxygen, Sulphur, Selenium, Tellurium and Polonium are the members of this groups.

Chemical Reactivity:

• Chemical reactivity increase down the group with the increase in atomic number.
• Total number of valence electrons are six in the family which encourage covalent bonding, as it is very difficult to loose six electrons meanwhile gaining two electrons to complete the octet would be easier, isn't it?
• Oxidation state of -2 is most common among the group, Sulphur can exist as +4 and +6 as well.

Usage:

• Oxygen is the most abundant one, now a days we have seen an enormous demand for clinical oxygen in Covid stricken patients, different types of oxygen is obtained by fractional distillation in plants under specific conditions, many industries such as steel mills use oxygen in their processes as well.
• Sulphur is found in the form of ores and is used in the formation of fungicides and several medicines.
• Selenium and tellurium are photoconductive meanwhile polonium is a rare radioactive metal.

Group 17 of Periodic Table

• Elements of the group 17 are called Halogens and are highly reactive, students often ask about the reason behind their unique name, so cracking it for you Halogen is a Greek word which has been derived from two words “Halo” meaning “Salt” and “Gen” means “to produce something”, the term collectively means “salt producing”.
• These elements are called halogens because of their salt producing ability when they react with an alkali metal. Halogens include Fluorine, Chlorine, Bromine, and Iodine.

Chemical Reactivity:

• Fluorine is the most reactive element of this group.
• All the halogens have seven electrons in their outermost shell so they can easily gain an electron in a chemical reaction. They have a usual oxidation state of -1.
• They are good oxidizing agents because of their higher electron affinities.

Physical Properties:

• Halogens turn into a darker color as we move from top to bottom in the group. Fluorine being pale yellow, meanwhile Chlorine has a greenish yellow tint, Bromine is found in brown color and lastly Iodine has a purple hue.
• First two elements are gases, Bromine is a liquid and Iodine exists as a solid at room temperature.

Usage:

• You must have watched a million ads on the television about fluoride toothpaste, yeah! It helps in preventing tooth decay. Fluorine has always been a fundamental part of dental industry.
• Chlorine is a bleaching agent and used to purify water as well especially in swimming pools.
• Bromine is used for water purification, pesticide production and in pharmaceutical companies as well.
• Using Iodized salt is a common practice in many countries, because it helps in improving growth and metabolism when used in appropriate amounts. Iodine is also used as a topical antiseptic agent.

Group 18 of Periodic Table

Elements of group 18 are also known as Noble gases, who is termed as a noble? A person who never mess around with anyone, same is the state of Noble gases, they're inert and don't react with anything because of the very obvious reason, can you guess? Yeah! You guessed it right. They have a complete octet, they don't have to reach out anyone to be stable. Noble gases include Helium, Neon, Argon, Krypton and Xenon. Physical and Chemical Properties:

• Noble gases are colorless and odorless in normal conditions.
• They have low melting and boiling points.
• Noble gases can be used as oxidizing agents under special circumstances.

 Usage and Applications:

• We all have seen ice cream cone as a lighting sign with popping colors outside the ice cream parlor, they're called Neon signs, the gas in them is not exactly neon every time but is always a Noble gas. All Noble gases give out their specific color when lighted.
• Helium balloons have also remained eye candy to every one of us in our childhoods as Helium gas is very light in nature that is the reason it is used for filling balloons.
• One of the latest applications of the noble gases are Excimers, these are the diamer forms of Noble gases and have wide applications in medical field. They help in eye surgery and myocardial repair.

Trends in the Periodic Table

In order to understand the trends found in the periodic table we must understand the term periodicity “Periodicity refers to the cyclical trend in the chemical and physical properties of the elements with increasing atomic number.” Periodicity help us understand and predict various trends among the family members of same group just like offspring from same parents have some general characteristics in common , they all may have blue eyes or black hair or anything in common as a family, families of the periodic table also have common characteristics in the similar ways.  Some of the periodic trends in the periodic table are;

• Atomic radii.
• Ionization energy.
• Electron affinity.
• Electronegativity.
• Shielding effect.
• Metallic and Nonmetallic  behavior.

Atomic Radii Trend in Periodic Table

• Atomic radii is one of the core aspects that can make the elements behave in a certain way in a chemical reaction.

Factors effecting the Atomic Radii:

• Atomic number
• Number of shells : As we move from top to bottom in a Group the atomic number increases, this gradual increase in the atomic number makes the atomic radii larger and larger by adding in a number of shells

Trend across the Group:

• When the atomic radii grows larger from top to bottom in a group, the hold of the nucleus on the valence electrons decreases.
• This decreased force on the valence electrons increases the reactivity of an element.
• So we can conclude that as we move towards the bottom an increase in reactivity of the elements can be predicted, why? Because they are less bounded by the nuclear forces and are free to react.

Trend across the Period:

• Similarly when moving left to right in a period , atomic radii decreases due to the decrease in atomic number and hence reactivity of the elements decreases , all thanks to strong grip of the nuclear forces on the valence electrons which pulls the electronic cloud towards itself.

Largest and smallest element With respect to Radius

• You might have thought which is the largest and the smallest element in terms of radius? Let me tell you, the smallest one is Helium meanwhile the largest one is Francium.

Exceptional Behavior:

• There are a few exceptions in the normal trend as well because all the five fingers can never be same.
• Ooxygen has a larger radius than its neighboring nitrogen all because nitrogen has seven proton in its nucleus meanwhile oxygen has eight so it has larger ionization energy value.

Ionization energy Trend in Periodic Table

Ionization energy can be defined as:

• "Ionization energy is the amount of energy required to remove the loosely bound electron from the outermost shell of a neutral gaseous atom in its ground state".

Factors effecting ionization energy:

• Atomic radius
• Shielding effect
• Increased atomic number

Trend across the Group:

• Ionization energy is mainly governed by the atomic radii, as we move from top to bottom in a group atomic radii increases, which results in a decline in effective nuclear charge.
• A declined effective nuclear charge and an increased shielding effect leads to the lesser binding force on the valence electrons, when the valence electrons have less nuclear force on them, what would happen? That would be easy to remove by giving a small amount of energy, this energy is called the ionization energy.
• Summing up we can say ionization energy decreases down the group as we move towards the bottom.

Trend across the Period:

• When moving across a period from left to right, the effective nuclear charge increases leading to a decrease in atomic radii, ultimately shielding effect also decreases, all these factors make it highly difficult to remove an electron rather they would prefer to gain an electron or two for stability.
• So we can say that ionization energy increases from left to right in a period. 

Types of ionization energy; There are two types of ionization energy

• First ionization energy
• Second ionization energy

Following is an example of first and second ionization energy:

• First ionization energy is the energy required to remove the electrons from a neutral gaseous atom.
• Second ionization energy refers to the amount of energy required for removal of an electron from the molecular ion or cation.

So here is an understandable clear fact which must not be missed in any way; second ionization energy is always higher than the first one. Let me explain why! It happens because of the increase of additional positive charge on the electronic cloud because of the removal of electron, nucleus tightens its grip on the valence shell, and hence a large amount of energy is required to remove an electron which is always higher than the first one.

Shielding effect Trend in Periodic Table

Before studying the shielding effect let's discuss what does a shield do? A shield masks or hinders the effect of any force applied to a body, when same principle is applied to an atom, we can define shielding effect as:

• "When the inner shell electrons shield the effect of nucleus, decreasing the effective nuclear charge on the valence electrons, then this phenomenon is called shielding effect".

Shielding effect decreases the effective nuclear charge experienced by the valence electrons. So now you must be thinking what is effective nuclear charge?

• "Effective nuclear charge is the average net positive charge experienced by an electron from its nucleus".

Trend across the Group:

• As the atomic number increases the number of shells in each atom also increase, with every additional shell there's a greater shielding effect on the valence electrons.

Trend across the Period:

• Shielding effect increases from top to bottom in a group meanwhile it remains constant from left to right in a period.
• The sole reason behind constant shielding effect from left to right is the same number of shells in all the elements residing in a period, no additional shell leads to constant shielding effect. Simple!

Electronegativity Trend in Periodic Table

Electronegativity can be defined as,

• "The ability of an atom to attract the shared pair of electrons partially or completely towards itself when bonded to another atom in a molecule".

Whenever we study covalent bonds we often talk about the poles, this is a polar covalent bond that is a non-polar one, you might have thought which causes this polarity within the molecules? So now you have your answer, electronegativity difference causes polarity in a molecule. Electronegativity values of certain elements have already been determined, the difference between their values i.e. the electronegativity difference help us predict the nature of bond, whether it would be ionic, covalent, slightly polar or moderately polar in nature. Factors effecting Electronegativity: Electronegativity of an element is effected by the following:

• Atomic number
• Number of valence electrons
• Shielding effect and effective nuclear charge
• Atomic radii

Trend across the period:

• In the periodic table electronegativity increases across the period when moving left to right, fluorine being crowned as the most electronegative element of all having the value if 4.
• All thanks to the strong grip of nucleus on the electronic cloud, which never lets anyone escape its grip!

Trend across the group:

• Meanwhile due to increase in atomic number and shielding effect, electronegativity decreases down the group, so these elements have lesser tendency to keep the shared pair of the electrons towards themselves so we can say that the left bottom elements of the periodic table can never be good keepers of the shared electrons.

Electron Affinity Trend in Periodic Table

Electron affinity is the opposite of Ionization energy which we have discussed earlier, ionization energy is the energy required for removal of an electron on the other hand electron affinity is the energy required for the addition of an electron to an atom.

• Electron affinity can be defined as “the amount of energy released when an electron is added to a neutral gaseous atom turning it into an anion.”

As energy is being released the process is exothermic in nature.

• Halogens have highest electron affinities in the periodic table
• Metals have lowest electron affinities in the periodic table.

Factors effecting electron affinity: Electron affinity is effected by the following:

• Atomic number
• Number of valence electrons
• Shielding effect and effective nuclear charge
• Atomic radii.

Trend across the Group:

• When we move from top to bottom in a group, atomic radii increases resulting in a weak nuclear charge on the valence electrons.
• So what you think now what would be the trend? I hope you can easily guess it by now! Yes you are right, electron affinity would decrease from top to bottom in a group.

Trend across the Period:

• From left to right in a period, effective nuclear charge never let anyone move astray like street animals, so it has strong hold on the valence shell, adding an electron releases a huge amount of energy which corresponds to higher electron affinity values increasing the electron affinity values gradually across the period.

Element with highest electron affinity:

• Chlorine has the highest electron affinity of all the elements even higher than fluorine because of its structural compactness as compared to fluorine.

Metallic Character Trend in Periodic Table

• Metallic character is one of the most interesting properties possessed by elements, as indicated by name, “metallic character is the ability of metal to lose electron during a chemical reaction.”
• Metallic character is observed due to the least ionization energy values of the metals which tend to loose electrons easily to remain stable rather than keeping them.

Electron pool theory: While discussing metallic character we must not forget electronic pool theory , Electronic pool theory is about the metallic character of the metals which tend to lose all their valence electrons turning it into a pool of electrons around a positive charge , this is the reason of their electrical conductivity, now you know! Trend across the Group: Metallic character increases down the group because of the following factors that come into play;

• Increased atomic number.
• Increased atomic radii.
• Lesser ionization energy.

In the presence of above factors, metals tend to lose electrons easily. Trend across the Period:

• From left to right in the periods metallic character decreases due to higher effective nuclear charge and smaller electronic clouds, so it is extremely difficult to lose an electron and exhibit metallic character.

Most and Least Metallic Elements:

• The most metallic of all the elements is Francium, meanwhile Fluorine is the least metallic or non-metallic element of the periodic table.

So that was all about periodic table and its groups with their brief introduction and general trends, I hope it helped you clear some general misconceptions we all have in our minds regarding the topic. See you with another topic soon, have a good day!

Traffic Light Simulation with D Flip Flop in Proteus

Hi Mentees! we hope you are doing great. Welcome to a super easy yet useful project based upon the simulation in Proteus. We are working on the Traffic Lights project that will work with the help of D Flip Flop. In this simple tutorial, you will be aware of the following concepts:

1. What are the Traffic Lights using D Flip Flop?
2. What is the role of D Flip Flop?
3. How does the circuit of D Flip Flop work in the Traffic Lights?
4. How can you simulate the circuit of Traffic Lights with D Flip Flop in Proteus?

In addition, you will find some important information about the Traffic Lights circuit in the DID YOU KNOW Sections. Let's start learning.

Traffic Lights with D Flip Flop

Who is not aware of the traffic lights? we all observe and use the Traffic lights on the road every day. But for the sake of the concepts, let's see the traffic lights technically.

"The Traffic Lights are the signaling devices that has an electronic circuit designed to control the flow of traffic at the roads by a specialized pattern of lights."

These traffic lights are positioned at road intersections ad pedestrian crossing and other positions where the traffic flow has to maintain. The Traffic Lights depends on an array of three lights with different colors that are connected electrically The whole system is packed into a metallic structure. The LEDs turn on and off with a special pattern that depends upon the circuit. Before moving forward, refresh the concepts of Traffic Light with the logical point of view. There are three lights in the Traffic Light Signals. These are:

1. Red
2. Amber
3. Green

The red light stays last for some moments. The circuit is designed so, we get the output from the Amber color light that coordinates with the red and green light and lasts for some time. In the end, we get only Green light. All these lights are formed as a result of the sequential logic of D Flip Flop and at the end, the output of two D Flip Flops are inserted into AND Gate. The output of the Green light depends upon the AND Gate and we found the light of green LED only when the output of both the D Flip Flops are HIGH.

Role of D Flip Flop in Traffic Lights

Have you ever thought about how does the traffic light blink at a specific time? We all follow the Traffic lights but today we'll learn that what does traffic light follows. The D Flip Flops are the logical circuits and we define the D Flip Flop as:

"The D Flip Flops a dual input is Flip Flop circuit that is designed to have the input at its D Terminal, regulates the signal with the clock edge pulses and shows the output at its two output terminals."

In the Traffic Lights, we use two D Flip Flops that are responsible for the switching of the lights in on or off conditions. The D Flip Flop is the combination of the S and R Flip Flops with an inverter with one terminal. but for  simplicity, we'll use the Integrated Circuit of D Flip Flop. Hence our circuit has only four components and we get a clean, easy and useful circuit that works automatically. The input Terminals are called CLK and D terminals whereas output terminals are denoted by Q and Q'.  The Truth Table for the D Flip Flop is given next:

Inputs		Output
CLK	D	Q	Q’
0	X	No Change
1	0	0	1
1	1	1	0

The X is called the don't care condition which means in this situation, the value of D does not matters. You can learn more about D Flip Flop in https://www.theengineeringprojects.com/2021/01/d-type-flip-flop-circuit-diagrams-in-proteus.html section. The output of the D Flip Flop is connected with each LED in the Traffic lights and hence we observe the on/off situations of Traffic Lights.

Working of Traffic Lights circuit with D Flip Flop

The working of the Traffic Light starts with the change in the pulse of the clock.

1. The Q' output of the D Flip Flop 2 gives the power to the Red Light of the Traffic Light.
2. When the clock is low, there is no change in the Q' terminal of the 1st Flip Flop then the Amber light is off.
3. With the clock pulses, the Amber light of the Traffic Light turns on.
4. When the clock is high, we get the output inverse of the D Flip Flop.
5. The output Q of the D Flip Flop1 and the Q' of the D Flip Flop 2 is fed into AND Gate.
6. We know the AND Gate is HIGH only when both of its terminals are HIGH.
7.  This output of the AND Gate is connected with the Green Light of the Traffic Light.

Circuit Simulation of Traffic Lights in Proteus ISIS

For the simulation of Traffic Light in Proteus, simply follow the easy steps coming next.

Devices required for the Traffic Lights

1. D Flip Flop - DTFF
2. Traffic Lights
3. AND Gate
4. Clock pulses - DClock
5. Connecting wires

• Power up your Proteus software.
• Click the "P" button.

• Write the names of 1st three devices given above one by one and choose them.
• Get D Flip Flop twice, And Gate and Traffic Lights from the pick library and arrange them on the working area.
• Go to Generation mode(from the sidebar) >DClock and set it just on left side of the 1st D Flip Flop.

• Connect all the components with the help of connecting wires.
• Connect the Traffic Light's red light with the output of 1st D Flip Flop, the amber light with the D Flip Flop 2 and the green light with the output of AND Gate.

• Pop the play button.

Does your Traffic Lights are working well? great! if not, then check the connection again. if you face any problem then share with us. Consequently, today we learned about the logic behind the Traffic Lights. We learned that with the help of D Flip Flop, one can easily design a circuit just using four simple devices. We saw the working of the sequential on/off condition of the Traffic Lights. Stay with us for more interesting circuits.

H-Bridge Circuit with 2N2222 Transistor in Proteus

Hey Learners! Welcome to The Engineering Projects. We hope you are doing great. Our team is working on transistors and today, we'll design a circuit for using the 2N2222 Transistor. In this chapter you will learn:

1. What is H Bridge with 2N2222 Transistor?
2. How do the 2N2222 Transistor works?
3. What is the working of H Bridge?
4. How can we run the circuit of  H Bridge in Proteus using 2N2222 Transistor?

By the same token, you will also learn important information about the topic in DID YOU KNOW Sections.

Introduction to H-Bridge

In electronic circuits, the direction of quantities like the flow of current, EMF, Electric field lines matter a lot. The H Bridge is used to control such motors through its specialized circuitry. The H Bridge is defined as:

"The H Bridge is an elementary circuit that ends the Motors to rotate in forward or backward direction according to the will of the user."

In this way, there is no need for the two motors in many cases. Only one motor can be used to accomplish the task instead of two.

DID YOU KNOW???

The most common, easy and interesting application of the H Bridge is in the robotics. The H Bridge is used to run the motors of the robots that are required to move the robot in the forward and backward direction.

The circuit of the 2N2222 H Bridge allows the current from the Direct Current source to flow from the required direction only and hinders the flow from the other direction.

Why we need the H Bridge

The direction of the moving of a motor paly a vital role in the output of that motor. The reason behind this is, most electric motors operate due to torque produced as the combined effect of magnetic field and electric current through a wire winding. Hence, We always need some means through which we can control the direction of the Motor to get the output that is suitable for our present requirement.

Performance of 2N2222 Transistor in H Bridge

The 2N2222 Transistor works as a backbone in the circuit of the H Bridge. We use four 2N2222 Transistors in the circuit and they work as a couple. The diagonal Transistors work together as a couple and allow the flow of current through them. By the same token, the non-diagonal 2N2222 Transistors work as a couple. Let's have a look at what is 2N2222 Transistor:

"The 2N2222 Transistor is a type of Bipolar Junction Transistors or BJTs that is designed to be used in the low power amplifying or switching applications."

DID YO KNOW???

Motorola made many semiconductor companies and the 2N2222 is  part of a huge family of Devices and Transistors that were discussed in IRE Conventions in Motorola company.

Being a BJT Transistor, the 2N2222 allows the flow of current in only one direction. Thus, it is responsible for the rotation of the Motor as per requirement of the user. The 2N2222 transistor (just as other JTs) has three pins. These pins are called Emitter, Base and Collector. The arrow symbol just at the transistor symbolizes the Emitter. Being an NPN Transistor, the collector and emitter terminals of 2N2222 Transistor in H Bridge act reverse biased or are said to be left open when the base pin is held to the ground or when there is no current flow from the base. On the other hand, when the base gets the flow of current from the battery or other components of the circuit in the H Bridge, the circuit is said to be forward-biased. The gain of the 2N2222 Transistor in the H Bridge ranges from 110 to 800. The value of gain is responsible for the determination of the 2N2222 Transistor's amplification capacity in the H Bridge.

Working of H Bridge Circuit

When we look at the circuit of H Bridge we get the following points:

1. The Direct Current from the battery originates from the positive terminal of the battery (considering the conventional current) and passes through the switch.

1. The switch allows the current to pass through the pair of the 2N2222 Transistor that is to be used.
2. The resistors just before the Transistors perform the regulation of the current through the transistors.
3. In our case, the H Bridge works according to the table given below:

Switch	Flow of Current	Direction of Motor
Connected to A	From T4 to Motor then Motor to T1	Anti-Clockwise
Connected to B	From T2 to Motor then Motor to T3	ClockWise

Let's have a look at the working of the H Bridge in action in Proteus ISIS.

Circuit of H Bridge in Proteus ISIS

We are going to design the circuit of the H Bridge in the Proteus ISIS. But before this, let's have a look at the required devices for the circuit.

Required Devices for H Bridge

1. 2N2222 Transistor
2. Resistor
3. Motor
4. Cell
5. Switch
6. Connecting Wires

Now,  just follow these simple steps:

• Start your Proteus Software.
• Click at the "P" button and choose the required devices except for connecting wires one by one.
• Arrange for 2N2222 Transistors, four Resistors, motor, switch and cell on the working area.
• Change the orientation of two of these Transistors before setting on the screen by clicking the arrow sign given just above the "P" button.
• Left Click the motor>Rotate clock-wise to change the direction of the motor according to the image given next:

• Change the value of Cell and Motor to 6v by double taping them one after the other.

• Connect all the components according to the circuit given next:

• Double click at all the resistors and transistors one after the other and label them to identify them as different devices.
• Pop the simulation button.
• Change the orientation of switch and check the output.

Task

Change the value of the transistors around the motor and observe the rotation speed of the motor.  

Truss today we saw, what is H Bridge, what is the role of 2N2222 Transistor in the circuit of H Bridge, How does the circuit of H Bridge works and we implemented the H Bridge circuit using 2N2222 Transistor in Proteus ISIS. Stay with us with more tutorials.

What is Velocity? Definition, SI Unit, Examples & Applications

Hello everyone! I hope this article will find you in great health. Today, in this article, we will discuss in detail: What is velocity? We will take a look at what exactly velocity is, how it can be measured, what scale has System International (SI) defined to measure the velocity, how many forms of velocity do exist in our surroundings, and what are the real-life applications of this physical quantity?

I will let you guys know about how velocity is a regular part of our daily lives and how it behaves in the environment we are living in. To understand the basic concept we need to have a deeper look at its real-life examples. A detailed discussion on velocity to have a better understanding is provided in the next section. Let’s get started.

What is Velocity?

An earthly object can possibly have two states i.e. rest or motion. If an object is in motion, a numerical value called Speed is used to measure how fast or slow the object is moving? Speed is defined as the distance covered per unit of time. So, if an object covers a distance of 1 meter in 1 second, its speed will be 1m/s. As speed is a scalar quantity so it just gives the scalar information(about motion) and doesn't tell us anything about the direction of the movement i.e. object is moving towards north, south or may have a circular motion.

So, in order to completely define the motion of an object, an equivalent vector quantity of speed was introduced and named Velocity. Velocity, not only gives the numerical value(speed) but also tells the direction of the moving object. In simple words, speed plus direction is equal to velocity and as speed is distance per unit time, similarly velocity is displacement per unit time.

Now let's have a look at a proper definition of Velocity:

Velocity Definition

• The velocity of an object is defined as the displacement(covered by it) per unit time in a particular direction.
• If two objects are moving in the same direction at different speeds OR in different directions at the same speed, they will have different velocities.
• Two objects will have the same velocities, only if both are moving in the same direction with the same speed.

Let's have a look at the symbol of velocity:

Velocity Symbol

• Symbols are used to represent physical quantities as writing the full name is time-consuming and sometimes overwhelming.
• The symbol used to represent Velocity is "v"(small character).
• As it's a vector quantity, so its symbol is either written in bold or with an arrowhead at the top.
• Sometimes, v(t) is also used as a velocity symbol, where t shows the time span.
• The below figure shows the velocity symbol more clearly:

Now let's have a look at the mathematical formula for calculating the velocity of an object:

Velocity Formula

• Velocity is defined as displacement per unit time, so its formula is:

Velocity = Displacement / Time

v = d/t

As v & d are both vector quantities, so written in bold while t is a scalar quantity.

• If we are calculating the average velocity of an object, the velocity formula will be:

Average Velocity = Distance Covered / Total Time

?v = ?d/?t

?v = (d2 - d1) / (t2 - t1)

where t1 & t2 are initial and final time intervals and d1 and d2 are initial and final displacements of the object.

Now, let's drive the velocity unit from its formula:

Velocity Unit (SI)

• As Velocity formula is:

Velocity = Displacement / Time

where SI unit of displacement is the meter and that of time in seconds.

• So, the SI unit of velocity is:

Velocity = meter / second

• SI unit of velocity is normally written as m/s or ms^-1.
• Other velocity units are:
  1. ft/s
  2. mph
  3. km/h etc.

In the game of cricket, the velocity of the ball is usually not measured in SI units rather they measure it in either kilometer per hour or miles per hour.

Velocity Dimensions

• Since the unit of displacement(meter) shows the quantity of length so its dimension would be “L”.
• Similarly, when it comes to the “second” it shows the amount of time so its dimension will be “T”.
• Putting these dimensions in the velocity formula, we have.

Velocity Dimension = [L/T]

v = [LT^-1]

 

Few Velocity Terms

Depending upon various factors, velocity has been divided into multiple types as discussed below. Let’s read through them all.

Negative Velocity

• If an object is moving in a coordinated plane, then its velocity is measured from some fixed reference point.
• In such cases, if the object is moving away from the reference point, its velocity is termed as Negative Velocity.

Let's understand it with an example of a ball thrown upwards:

As we know, Earth's gravitational force pulls everything towards it. So, considering the earth as a reference point, when you throw a ball in the upward direction, it's moving away from its reference point(Earth's center). So, during its upward flight, the ball will have a negative velocity and thus is written with a negative sign.

Zero Velocity

• When an object is not covering any distance with respect to the varying time, it will be said to have Zero Velocity.

Let's continue that example of the ball moving upward:

As we have seen in the previous section, the ball will have a negative velocity while moving upward. But when it will reach the maximum height and rite before moving back in the downward direction, for an instance it will have a zero velocity, as it won't be moving either upward or downward.

Positive Velocity

• If the object is moving towards the reference point of its coordinate system, its velocity is termed as Positive Velocity.

Let's add some more in that ball example:

Once the ball reaches the maximum height, it will start moving back in the downward direction. Now, the ball is moving towards its reference point(Earth's Core) so it will be said to have positive velocity now.

Initial Velocity

• As moving objects have variable velocities over different periods of time, that's why velocity is normally measured in the rate of change(?v).
• So, the first velocity of the object, when it comes under observation is termed as Initial Velocity.
• The Initial Velocity is also termed as the velocity of an object at time t = 0.
• Initial velocity is denoted in Physics by the alphabetic letter "u" or "Vi".

Let's understand it with the same example:

We have seen the ball example thrown upward. If we consider both of its loops(moving upward and then downward), its initial velocity will be right where it left the hand of the thrower. It will have a maximum initial velocity as during the upward direction it will slow down and during the downward direction, it will lose some to friction. But if we only consider the second loop i.e. the ball has reached its maximum position and now it's moving downwards. So, in this scenario, the initial velocity of the ball will be 0. I hope it got cleared.

Initial Velocity Formulas:

• Using the equation of motion, we can easily derive different mathematical expressions for the initial velocity. The first equation of motion is,

v = u + at

• If we are provided with the time, final velocity, and acceleration, we can calculate the initial velocity using the formula given below.

u = v - at

The above expression shows when we multiply acceleration with the given time and subtract this product from the final velocity, it gives us the initial velocity.

• If a scenario comes where distance, final velocity, and acceleration are provided, we can find initial velocity from a mathematical expression given below:

u² = v² - 2aS

• In case, we have only time, distance and acceleration to find out the initial velocity, we can use the formula shown below.

u = S/t - (1/2) at

• If the final velocity, time, and distance are provided in the statement, an effective way to find out the initial velocity is given below.

u = 2(S/t) - v

 

where,

• u = initial velocity.
• v = final velocity.
• a = acceleration.
• t = time consumed.
• S = distance covered.

Final Velocity

• The velocity of a body at the end of the provided time is known as the Final Velocity.
• We can also define Final Velocity as the last velocity of the object while it's under consideration.
• The final velocity is usually denoted by “v” or “V_f”.

Final Velocity Formulas

• Using the equation of motion, the final velocity can be easily calculated with the formula given below, when we are provided with the initial velocity, acceleration, and time consumed:

v = u + at

or

V_f = V_i + at

• If the statement has asked us to calculate the final velocity and provided us with distance, initial velocity, and acceleration. We can use the below formula for quick calculations.

V_f² = V_i² + 2aS

Where,

• V_f = Final Velocity.
• V_i = Initial Velocity.
• S = Distance covered.

Let's understand the concept associated with the final velocity through a visual example.

A projectile motion of the ball thrown from one end is shown in the figure below. At time zero (t = 0), when a guy in a purple shirt throws a ball, the velocity of that ball at this time is considered initial velocity. After reaching a particular height, when the ball starts moving downwards and reaches at t = 8 seconds in the hands of a guy wearing a green shirt. At t = 8 seconds, the velocity of the ball is the final velocity. After this velocity, an object comes again into the stationary position.

Similarly, if you drop a ball from a specific height and allow it to move towards the ground as shown in the figure below. The moment you drop the ball, the velocity is called initial velocity. Whereas, the moment when the ball touches the ground, the velocity will be known as the final velocity.

Now let's have a look at different types of velocity in detail:

Types of Velocity

Depending on the type of object and its motion, we have numerous types of velocities, a few of them as discussed as follows:

Average Velocity

• When an object is moving in a specific direction, the ratio between the total displacement covered and total time consumed is known as the average velocity of that particular body in motion.
• It is denoted by “v” or "Vav".
• We can also define this quantity as the average rate at which the body changes its position from one point to another point.

Average velocity = total displacement covered / total time taken

• If we take the difference between the initial and final displacements and divide it by the difference of initial and final time, it will give us average velocity in return.

?v=?x/?t

?v = (x2-x1) / (t2-t1)

Where,

• x2=final displacement
• x1=initial displacement
• t2=final time
• t1=initial time

Average velocity cannot tell us how fast or slow an object is moving in a specific interval of time and for that, we have another type of velocity called Instantaneous velocity.

Instantaneous Velocity

• The velocity of an object at a particular instant is known as the instantaneous velocity of that object.
• In other words, the velocity of a moving body at a specific point is its instantaneous velocity at that point.
• Instantaneous velocity is similar to average velocity but we need to narrow the time intervals i.e. time approaches to 0.
• It is denoted by “Vinst”.
• If any subject has a fixed velocity over a specific time period then its instantaneous and average velocity will be the same.

By applying a limit “t” approaches zero on the average velocity provides us with the instantaneous velocity as shown in the formula given below.

V_inst = Lim _{t -> 0} (?d/?t)

Take a look at the figure below, the velocity at point “p” depicts the instantaneous velocity of a moving body.

The figure below shows the relation between average and instantaneous velocity. The velocity is represented by the red line and has been divided into several segments. The position is displayed on the y-axis whereas the x-axis shows the time consumed. In the first interval, Jack has covered 3 miles in the first 6 minutes. In the second interval, Jack stopped for 9 minutes. Whereas, in the third interval, Jack covered another 5 miles in 15 minutes. If we divide the total displacement covered by Jack by the total time consumed during the whole travel, it will give us an average velocity.

Constant Velocity

• If a body is traveling at the same speed for a long time and is not changing direction, then its velocity will be considered as Constant Velocity for that particular interval of time.
• In other words, it can be said that a body will have a constant velocity if it is moving at a constant speed along the straight line. This straight line can be represented by the formula given below.

x=xo+vt

Where,

xo=position of the body at t=0

• An object can have a constant velocity if it is moving in the presence of very little or no friction. Less friction allows that object to move freely just like in ice hockey where a hockey puck slides on the ice as shown in the figure below.
• If an object is moving with a constant velocity, it will have zero acceleration because acceleration is the rate of change of velocity per unit time.

a=dv/dt=0 v=constant

This scenario can be visualized through a velocity-time graph as shown in the figure below. You can see a straight line for each time interval depicting the velocity is constant throughout with “0” acceleration.

Variable Velocity

• If the velocity of an object is changing in either direction or magnitude or both, it is said to have a Variable Velocity.
• If an object is in a motion and is covering unequal distances for every equal interval of time, we can say it is moving with a variable velocity.
• In simple words, variable velocity is a type of velocity that changes with time.

Let's understand this from a real-life example.

For instance, if a fan installed in your room is rotating at a continuous speed, its velocity will be variable because its direction gets changed every time.

Orbital Velocity

• The velocity required to make an object overcome its gravitational force and rotate within an orbit is called orbital velocity.
• The movement of satellites around the earth and the movement of stars around the sun are the best examples of orbital velocity.
• It is denoted by “Vorbit” and for Earth, its mathematical formula is:

Vorbit=GMR

Where,

• G=gravitational constant=6.6710-11m3kg-1s-2
• M= mass of the planet
• R=radius

Escape Velocity

• Escape velocity is the type of minimum velocity required for an object to escape from the gravitational force of a massive body (moon, earth, etc.) and to move out somewhere in space.
• Escape velocity increases with an increase in the mass of a body.
• It is denoted by “ve” and depends upon various parameters including the mass of the planet and radius.
• We can calculate it using the mathematical expression given below.

ve=2GMr

Where,

• G=gravitational constant.
• M=mass of the planet.
• r=radius.

Angular Velocity

• The rate of velocity at which a body rotates around a particular point or center in a given amount of time is called angular velocity.
• It can also be defined as the angular speed at which a body rotates along a specific direction.
• Angular velocity is denoted by omega “?”.

Angular Velocity Unit

• System International has assigned this quantity with a unit known as radians per second.
• This quantity can also be measured in many other units as well depending on the requirements and they include:
  1. degrees per second
  2. degrees per hour

Let's have a look at how to find the angular velocity of a moving object?

Angular Velocity Formula

To calculate this quantity, a formula is given below.

?=??/?t

Or,

?=v/r

Where,

• v=linear velocity
• r=radius
• ?=angular velocity

Conversion of Angular Velocity into Rotational Velocity

• When we measure angular velocity in either revolution per minute or rotations per unit time, it becomes rotational velocity.

The direction of motion of an object moving with angular velocity is always perpendicular to a plane of rotation. It can be measured using the right-hand rule. The whole concept is shown in the figure below.

 

Linear Velocity

• As it is very clear from the name of this quantity, when an object moves along a straight line in a single direction, its velocity will be a linear velocity.
• It is simply denoted by the alphabetic letter “v”.

The above figure shows that the linear velocity is dependent on the two different parameters i.e., distance covered and the time consumed to cover that particular distance.

Let's have a look at how to find linear velocity?

Linear Velocity Formula

It can be calculated using the below mathematical expression.

velocity=distance/time

v=S/t

As we know,

S=r?

Putting this value in the above formula we have,

v=r?/t

The linear velocity can also be represented in terms of an angular velocity as given below.

v=r?

Terminal Velocity

• A steady speed that an object achieves when falling through the liquid or gas is known as its terminal velocity.
• In other words, we can describe this quantity as the constant vertical velocity of an object.
• It can also be defined as the highest velocity maintained by a body that is falling through the liquid
• It is denoted in Physics by “vt”.

Factors Involved in Terminal Velocity

• This quantity is dependent on multiple factors e.g.,
  1. the mass of the object
  2. drag coefficient, acceleration
  3. projected area
  4. fluid density.

Terminal Velocity Formula

• Terminal velocity can be calculated using a mathematical expression given below:

vt=2mgACd

Where,

• vt=terminal velocity
• g=gravitational acceleration=9.8 ms-2
• m=falling object's mass
• Cd=drag coefficient
• A=projected area
• ?=fluid density

Uniform Velocity

• A scenario when a moving body is covering the equal displacement in equal internal in a fixed direction is said to have a uniform velocity.
• It is a stable velocity that does not change in multiple intervals of the time consumed and direction remains the same too.

Let's understand with an example.

• A motorbike traveling with a speed of 20 kilometers per hour towards the east has uniform velocity.
• Uniform velocity can be easily visualized on the distance-time graph as shown in the figure below.

Non Uniform Velocity

• A body that covers unequal displacement in equal time intervals is said to have non-uniform velocity.
• In this case, either direction of motion or both rate of motion and direction can be changed for an object in motion.

Let's understand this with a visual example.

The track of a car moving with non-uniform velocity is shown in the below figure. Unequal displacements covered in equal intervals of time can clearly be seen from the velocity-time graph.

Relative Velocity

• Relative velocity is the vector difference between the velocities of two different objects.
• It can also be defined as the velocity of an object with respect to an observer who is at rest.

Let's understand the overall scenario with an example.

For instance, the air is causing some hindrance in the airplane’s track or a boat is traveling through the river whose water is flowing at a particular rate. In such cases, to observe the complete motion of the object, we need to consider the effect of the medium affecting the motion of a moving body. By doing so, we measure the relative velocity of that moving object as well as the medium’s velocity affecting its motion

Let's have a look at another example to have a better understanding of relative velocity.

Finding Relative Velocity

• The relative velocity of an object “x” relative to the object “y” can be expressed as shown below.

Vxy=Vx-Vy

• Similarly, the relative velocity of an object “y” relative to the object “x” is given below.

Vyx=Vy-Vx

• Taking a look at the above equations, we can develop it as:

Vxy=-Vyx

• The above equation shows that both relative velocities are equal in magnitude but opposite in direction.

|Vxy|=|Vyx|

• In the first case, the observer is moving in the rightwards and the ball was thrown by a girl is moving in the same direction and the person dragging that girl is traveling in the same direction as well. Therefore, all these quantities are positive.
• In the second case, the girl is throwing the ball in opposite direction to the direction in which the observer is moving. That is why the signs of the velocities are negative for both the observer as well as the ball.

Now, let's have a look at what parameters creates a difference between speed and velocity.

Difference Between Velocity and Speed

It has been proved through various research studies that most of the time people get confused when it comes to speed and velocity. They mostly get confused in implementing their concepts separately in different scenarios as and when needed.

Basic Difference

If I tell you the very basic difference between these two quantities, they are just as different as distance and displacements are.

• Speed is the rate of change of distance with respect to the time consumed in covering that particular distance.
• Whereas, velocity is the rate of change of displacement (shortest distance) covered by a moving object in a specific direction per unit of time.

Let's have a look at some more points to understand the difference effectively.

• Speed depicts that how fast an object has the ability to move. An object at a stationary position always has zero speed. The speed needs no direction to be defined.
• It is a necessity for someone to consider the direction in which a body is moving if one is going to describe the velocity.

Therefore, keeping in mind the above points, it can be said that a direction creates a major difference between speed and velocity.

• The quantity that doesn’t require direction to be measured is known as the scalar quantity and it only needs magnitude to be defined. Therefore, speed falls into the category of scalar quantities.
• The quantities that need direction and cannot be defined without it are known as the vector quantities. Therefore, velocity belongs to the family of vector quantities.

Let's understand through an example.

For instance, 30 kilometers per hour is the speed of a moving vehicle whereas 30 kilometers per hour east shows the velocity of the same vehicle.

• It is very simple to calculate the speed of any moving object compared to calculating the velocity of the same object.
• Average speed is the ratio between distance traveled and the time taken.
• Whereas, the average velocity is the ratio between the change in position (?S) and the change in time (?t) consumed.

Findings

• In the light of the above discussion, we can say that the speed with the direction forms a velocity.
• In order to provide a much better understanding of speed and velocity and their basic differences are listed in the table shown below.

Parameters	Speed	Velocity
Definition	The rate at which a body covers a particular distance is commonly known as speed.	The rate at which a body changes its position in a specific direction is called velocity.
Magnitude	Speed is always positive and it cannot be either negative or zero.	Velocity can be positive, zero, and negative depending upon the direction in which an object is moving.
Quantity Type	Speed does not need any direction for its description so, it is a scalar quantity.	Velocity cannot be described without direction so it is a vector quantity.
Change in Direction	Change in direction does not matter when calculating average speed.	Every change in direction changes the velocity.
Formula	s=distancetime=dt	s=change in positionchange in time=st
SI Units	Meter per second (m/s)	Meter per second (m/s)

Examples of Velocity

A few examples of velocity from real-life are presented to clear your concepts related to it if there still exists any confusion.

• Suppose, you go to your school to maintain your studies on a daily basis. The school is situated to the west of your home. Here, you can observe that you always go towards the west from the starting point which means you go in a particular direction that depicts velocity. Your speed could be high or low.
• In the game of cricket, when a ball is thrown by the baller towards a batsman is also a great example of velocity from our daily life because it follows a single direction.
• The way the moon revolves around the earth and the earth moves around the sun is another example of velocity from nature because of its single direction.
• The ceiling fan rotating in your home during summers also belongs to the family of velocity due to its either clockwise or anti-clockwise rotation.
• The movement of the train from one city to another also follows a specific track in a single direction.
• A revolution of a launched satellite around the earth.
• Water coming from the tap when you open it.
• The flow of the river (it depicts variable velocity).
• Anyone doing morning walk or running.

Final Words

This is all from today’s article. I have tried my level best to explain to you each and everything associated with the velocity. I have focused in detail on its basic concept, various forms, unit assigned by System International, and visual examples where needed. Moreover, I have provided you with a couple of examples captured from real life so that you can have a better understanding of velocity.

I hope you have enjoyed the content and are well aware of this topic now. If you are looking for more similar information, stay tuned because I have a lot more to share with you guys in the upcoming days. In case you have any concerns, you can ask me in the comments. I will surely try to help you out as much as I can. For now, I am signing off. Take good care of yourself and stay blessed always.

Thank You!

Real estate management: The Need for Routine Repair and Maintenance

As an investor or manager in the real estate industry, it is imperative to care for the property. Whether you are leasing or living on the property, it is essential to be proactive in repair and maintenance. Lack of routine inspection can lead to unprecedented expenses for landlords and homeowners. Read on to find out ways to prevent system failures and increase their service life, in turn.

It is an Extensive Activity

For proper care and maintenance to real estate, it is critical to understand the property. However, it would be best if you had qualified personnel take a look at the place to give a professional opinion. There are different types of mro (maintenance, repair, and operations) to improve real estate management. Businesses need to keep up with the industry trends to know what is a cmms and ways it can improve business processes. It does not matter the industry the venture operates in. The systems can be customized to fit your business needs.  Being proactive in the approach entails engaging in both preventive and continuous maintenance. Here are tips that can help real estate managers and homeowners increase the property’s service life;

Conduct a Home Inspection

Regular inspection of the systems in real estate can help identify a problem before disaster strikes. The harsh weather conditions play a significant role in the need for routine repair and maintenance. Whenever the season changes, have a home inspection to determine the damage. It will also help in planning for the next season and acting accordingly. However, without inspecting the systems, you will discover the problem when the damage is already done. It is also costly to replace a whole system in a building than repair minor issues as it is detected. 

Preventive Maintenance Techniques

For you to protect the property from degradation, it is critical to engage in preventive maintenance activities. It is beneficial when real estate managers and homeowners undertake the initiative of preventing severe damage to building systems. Some of the best practices in real estate management are; HVAC System care Purchasing an HVAC system is costly. Replacing the components is expensive as it might require you to order the parts. However, we can prevent some of the challenges through routine repair and maintenance. The practice will also ensure the system is performing as per the manufacturer’s specifications. You will be using the system across all seasons, and it is critical to make the care more frequent. The malfunction of such equipment will depend on the amount of time they are in operation.  Environmental Management Trees suffer when snow accumulates on them. The parts become weak and will fall off if there is no action taken. On the other hand, there is a risk to the property when the trees fall as it may cause damage. So, it is critical to maintain the environment and identify any risks that nature poses to the property. Proofing Leakages One of the most undetectable problems always waiting to explode in modern buildings is leakages on the roofing system. It is essential to clean the gutters to ensure water is flowing through the roofing system. If the roof is susceptible to water, it is important to consider changing the whole system and use a material that prevents water from leaking. When water gets into the roof, molds will likely start to form. On the other hand, water may damage the ceiling and may make it fall. Proofing for leakages will prevent the eventualities. The inspection activity can help detect impending challenges on the roofing system and prompt immediate action.

Manage the Repair and Maintenance Expenses

When purchasing property, the initial cost is known as capital investments. However, it is essential to monitor the subsequent costs arising from repair and maintenance needs. Ensure to record all the expenses either on paper or on a computer.  Follow the insights in this read to manage a real estate property better.

12V to 220V Step Up Inverter using transformer in Proteus

Hey learners! Welcome to another exciting electrical experiment in Proteus. At the present day, we'll perform the inversion of voltage. For this purpose, we will use the implementation of Transformer as Step-up Transformer. Prior to start, let's have the basic information about the 12V to 220V Step up inverter using Transformer in Proteus. In this tutorial, we'll learn:

1. What is a 12V to 220V inverter?
2. What is the function of the transformer in the 12V to 220V inverter?
3. How can we implement the Step up inverter using a Transformer in Proteus?
4. What are some applications of the 12V to 220V inverter?

Moreover, there will be some useful pieces of information in DID YOU KNOW sections.;

12V to 220V inverter

In electronic appliances, the circuitry is designed so, that the appliance can work in a specific range of Voltage, Frequency and power etc. If these quantities are not supplied using these parameters, then the Appliance does not work ideally. For example, if the given voltage to a bulb is less than its voltage range it may be lightened dim. or if the voltage is given more than the range of the bulb, the circuitry of the bulb may be damaged or even it may burst. In such a case, the invertors are used that inverts the voltage (or other electrical quantities according to type) into the suitable range is used. Therefore, the 12V to 220V inverter can be defined as:

"An invertor is the electrical circuit that converts the 12V Direct current into 220V Alternating current and alters supplied voltage range into required range."

By using the 12V to 220V inverter the electrical or electronic circuits, we can use the electrical circuits that work on the 220V even when the supply from the source is 12V.

DID YOU KNOW??????????????

"The Inverters play a life saving role in the appliances that have a sensitive circuit to voltage and current. Even the High voltage more than the range of the device can burn the circuit so badly that it may require to change the whole circuitry or the motherboard of the device."

 

Working of 12V to 220V invertor

in the process of 12V to 220V inversion, three major process takes place:

1. Supply
2. Conversion
3. Transformation

We use simple circuitry to perform each task. Based upon the functionality, we use three devices in the circuit of 12V to 220V inverter. These are:

1. Battery
2. Transistor
3. Transformer

Role of Battery in 12V to 220V Transformer

It is obvious that every circuit requires some sort of energy to perform the required function. In 12V to 220V Inverter, we use a 12V battery that will be supplied to whole components. The 12V battery performs the "Supply" process in the 12V to 220V Inverter.

Role of Transistor in 12V to 220V Inverter

The process of conversion of direct current into alternating current requires a mechanism that allows just the positive side of the sinusoidal wave of the Alternating current to pass through it and hence one can get only one side of the output wave of current. In the case of low and medium applications, power Transistors are used. The reason behind this logic is, the Transistors:

• are Less in cost.
• have low output Impedance.
• Allow most of the power to pass through it.

We know that the Transistor work as a switch. the two type regions of the characteristic graph of the Transistor are used in this experiment. Saturation region: In this region the transistor is biased. The collector-Emitter and the Collector-base junctions are forward biased. The collector has the minimum voltage and the collector current is maximum. Cut-off Region: In this region, the Transistor does not allow the current to pass through it.

Role of Transformer in 12V to 220V Inverter

The Transformer is the mechanical device used o transform the voltages from its input to its output. It has two sides that have coils around them. In our experiment, we use the Step-up Transformer that is introduced as:

"The type of Transformer that is used to convert the low voltage and high current supplied to its input to the high voltage and low current at its output is called the step up Transformer."

Hence the voltage from the Transistor that is rectified and has the direction only on one side is fed at its input. The Transformer transforms the low voltage into the high voltage. In this way, we get a high voltage. The ability of the transform to amplify the voltage depends upon the number of turns of the coil on its terminals.

DID YOU KNOW???

"If you get a transformer that have the same mechanical structure but it has the numbers of turns in primary coil grater than the secondary coil then it is called the step down Transformer. "

Implementation of 12V to 220V inverter using Transformer

At the present moment, we'll use all our concepts given above to design the circuit for the 12V to 220V Inverter. Just follow the simple steps given next.

• Power up your Proteus circuit.
• Choose the material given below.

Material Required

1. 3WATT68R (This resistor works at the 68R resistance automatically.)
2. Battery
3. Lamp
4. MJ-2925
5. Trans-2P3S (Step-up Transformer)

• Click at the components one after the other and arrange the components one after the other at the working area.
• Left-click at the Battery and choose "Rotate 180 degree".
• The screen should look like this:

• Change the values of some of the components by following the table given next:

Devices	Values
Battery	12V
Bulb	240V
Bulb Resistance	100k
Transformer Primary Inductance	100H
Transformer Total Secondary Inductance	1.1H

 

• Connect the elements with the help of the diagram given below:

• Simulate the circuit by clicking at "Play" button given on the lower-left corner of the screen.

You will observe that the bulb is light although it is set as a 220V device and the supplied voltage is just 12V.

Applications of 12V to 220V Inverter using Transformer

1. To charge the small batteries of vehicles such as cars.
2. Low power Alternating Current Motors.
3. Solar Power system.
4. Uninterrupted Power Supplies (UPS).
5. Reaction power controllers.
6. Adapted power Filters.

Adjustable speed Alternating Current Motor Drivers. Consequently, we saw about an electrical circuit today that converts the 12V from its input to 220V at its output using the Transformer. This experiment has many interesting applications. Stay with us for more experiments.